Монотеизм

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Монотеизм – это вера в то, что один бог – единственное божество . Можно провести различие между исключительным монотеизмом, в котором единый Бог представляет собой единственное существование, и инклюзивным и плюриформным монотеизмом, в котором признается множество богов или божественных форм, но каждый из них постулируется как продолжение одного и того же Бога.

Монотеизм отличается от генотеизма , религиозной системы, в которой верующий поклоняется одному богу, не отрицая, что другие могут поклоняться разным богам с равной достоверностью, и монолатризма , признания существования многих богов, но с последовательным поклонением только одному божеству. Термин монолатрия , возможно, впервые был использован Юлиусом Веллхаузеном .

Пророки древнего Израиля были первыми, кто учил монотеизму. , establishing it as a foundational tenet of the Jewish religious tradition, which endures as one of its most profound and enduring legacies.

Monotheism characterizes the traditions of Zoroastrianism, Bábism, the Baháʼí Faith, Christianity, Deism, Druzism, Eckankar, Sikhism, Manichaeism, Islam, Judaism, Samaritanism, Mandaeism, Rastafari, Seicho-no-Ie, Tenrikyo, Yazidism, and Atenism. Elements of monotheistic thought are found in early religions such as ancient Chinese religion, Tengrism, and Yahwism.

Etymology and usage

The word monotheism comes from the Greek μόνος (monos) meaning "single" and θεός (theos) meaning "god". The English term was first used by Henry More (1614–1687).

Monotheism is a complex and nuanced concept. The biblical authors had various ways of understanding God and the divine, shaped by their historical and cultural contexts. The notion of monotheism that is used today was developed much later, influenced by the Enlightenment and Christian views. Many definitions of monotheism are too modern, western, and Christian-centered to account for the diversity and complexity of the ancient sources, which include not only the biblical texts, but also other writings, inscriptions, and material remains that help reconstruct the ancient beliefs and practices of the people of Judah and Israel.

The term "monotheism" is often contrasted with "polytheism," but many scholars prefer other terms such as monolatry, henotheism, or one-god discourse.

History

Quasi-monotheistic claims of the existence of a universal deity date to the Late Bronze Age, with Akhenaten's Great Hymn to the Aten from the 14th century BCE.

In the Iron-Age South Asian Vedic period, a possible inclination towards monotheism emerged. The Rigveda exhibits notions of monism of the Brahman, particularly in the comparatively late tenth book, which is dated to the early Iron Age, e.g. in the Nasadiya Sukta. Later, ancient Hindu theology was monist, but was not strictly monotheistic in worship because it still maintained the existence of many gods, who were envisioned as aspects of one supreme God, Brahman.

In China, the orthodox faith system held by most dynasties since at least the Shang dynasty (1766 BCE) until the modern period centered on the worship of Shangdi (literally "Above Sovereign", generally translated as "God") or Heaven as an omnipotent force. However, this faith system was not truly monotheistic since other lesser gods and spirits, which varied with locality, were also worshipped along with Shangdi. Still, later variants such as Mohism (470 BCE–c.391 BCE) approached true monotheism, teaching that the function of lesser gods and ancestral spirits is merely to carry out the will of Shangdi, akin to the angels in Abrahamic religions which in turn counts as only one god.

Since the sixth century BCE, Zoroastrians have believed in the supremacy of one God above all: Ahura Mazda as the "Maker of All" and the first being before all others. The prophet Zoroaster is credited with the founding of the first monotheistic religion in history sometime around the middle of the second millennium BCE, antedating the Israelites and leaving a lasting imprint on Second Temple Judaism and, through it, on later monotheistic religions.

Post-exilic Judaism, after the late 6th century BCE, was the first religion to conceive the notion of a personal monotheistic God within a monist context. The concept of ethical monotheism, which holds that morality stems from God alone and that its laws are unchanging, first occurred in Judaism, but is now a core tenet of most modern monotheistic religions, including Christianity, Islam, Sikhism, and Baháʼí Faith.

Also from the 6th century BCE, Thales (followed by other Monists, such as Anaximander, Anaximenes, Heraclitus, Parmenides) proposed that nature can be explained by reference to a single unitary principle that pervades everything. Numerous ancient Greek philosophers, including Xenophanes of Colophon and Antisthenes, believed in a similar polytheistic monism that bore some similarities to monotheism. The first known reference to a unitary God is Plato's Demiurge (divine Craftsman), followed by Aristotle's unmoved mover, both of which would profoundly influence Jewish and Christian theology.

According to Jewish, Christian and Islamic tradition, monotheism was the original religion of humanity; this original religion is sometimes referred to as "the Adamic religion", or, in the terms of Andrew Lang, the "Urreligion". Scholars of religion largely abandoned that view in the 19th century in favour of an evolutionary progression from animism via polytheism to monotheism, but by 1974, this theory was less widely held, and a modified view similar to Lang's became more prominent.

Austrian anthropologist Wilhelm Schmidt had postulated an Urmonotheismus, "original" or "primitive monotheism" in the 1910s. It was objected that Judaism, Christianity, and Islam had grown up in opposition to polytheism as had Greek philosophical monotheism. More recently, Karen Armstrong and other authors have returned to the idea of an evolutionary progression beginning with animism, which developed into polytheism, which developed into henotheism, which developed into monolatry, which developed into true monotheism.

Regions

Africa

Indigenous African religion

The Tikar people of Cameroon have a traditional spirituality that emphasizes the worship of a single god, Nyuy.

The Himba people of Namibia practice a form of monotheistic panentheism, and worship the god Mukuru. The deceased ancestors of the Himba and Herero are subservient to him, acting as intermediaries.

The Igbo people practice a form of monotheism called Odinani. Odinani has monotheistic and panentheistic attributes, having a single God as the source of all things. Although a pantheon of spirits exists, these are lesser spirits prevalent in Odinani expressly serving as elements of Chineke (or Chukwu), the supreme being or high god.

Waaq is the name of a singular God in the traditional religion of many Cushitic people in the Horn of Africa, denoting an early monotheistic religion. However this religion was mostly replaced with the Abrahamic religions. Some (approximately 3%) of Oromo still follow this traditional monotheistic religion called Waaqeffanna in Oromo.

Ancient Egypt

Atenism

Main article: Atenism

Pharaoh Akhenaten and his family adoring the Aten

Amenhotep IV initially introduced Atenism in Year 5 of his reign (1348/1346 BCE) during the 18th dynasty of the New Kingdom. He raised Aten, once a relatively obscure Egyptian solar deity representing the disk of the sun, to the status of Supreme God in the Egyptian pantheon. To emphasise the change, Aten's name was written in the cartouche form normally reserved for Pharaohs, an innovation of Atenism. This religious reformation appears to coincide with the proclamation of a Sed festival, a sort of royal jubilee intended to reinforce the Pharaoh's divine powers of kingship. Traditionally held in the thirtieth year of the Pharaoh's reign, this possibly was a festival in honour of Amenhotep III, who some Egyptologists think had a coregency with his son Amenhotep IV of two to twelve years.

Year 5 is believed to mark the beginning of Amenhotep IV's construction of a new capital, Akhetaten (Horizon of the Aten), at the site known today as Amarna. Evidence of this appears on three of the boundary stelae used to mark the boundaries of this new capital. At this time, Amenhotep IV officially changed his name to Akhenaten (Agreeable to Aten) as evidence of his new worship. The date given for the event has been estimated to fall around January 2 of that year. In Year 7 of his reign (1346/1344 BCE), the capital was moved from Thebes to Akhetaten (near modern Amarna), though construction of the city seems to have continued for two more years. In shifting his court from the traditional ceremonial centres Akhenaten was signalling a dramatic transformation in the focus of religious and political power.

The move separated the Pharaoh and his court from the influence of the priesthood and from the traditional centres of worship, but his decree had deeper religious significance too—taken in conjunction with his name change, it is possible that the move to Amarna was also meant as a signal of Akhenaten's symbolic death and rebirth. It may also have coincided with the death of his father and the end of the coregency. In addition to constructing a new capital in honor of Aten, Akhenaten also oversaw the construction of some of the most massive temple complexes in ancient Egypt, including one at Karnak and one at Thebes, close to the old temple of Amun.

In Year 9 (1344/1342 BCE), Akhenaten declared a more radical version of his new religion, declaring Aten not merely the supreme god of the Egyptian pantheon, but the only God of Egypt, with himself as the sole intermediary between the Aten and the Egyptian people. Key features of Atenism included a ban on idols and other images of the Aten, with the exception of a rayed solar disc, in which the rays (commonly depicted ending in hands) appear to represent the unseen spirit of Aten. Akhenaten made it however clear that the image of the Aten only represented the god, but that the god transcended creation and so could not be fully understood or represented. Aten was addressed by Akhenaten in prayers, such as the Great Hymn to the Aten: "O Sole God beside whom there is none".

The details of Atenist theology are still unclear. The exclusion of all but one god and the prohibition of idols was a radical departure from Egyptian tradition, but scholars see Akhenaten as a practitioner of monolatry rather than monotheism, as he did not actively deny the existence of other gods; he simply refrained from worshiping any but Aten. Akhenaten associated Aten with Ra and put forward the eminence of Aten as the renewal of the kingship of Ra.

Under Akhenaten's successors, Egypt reverted to its traditional religion, and Akhenaten himself came to be reviled as a heretic.

Other monotheistic traditions

Some Egyptian ethical text authors believed in only a single god ruling over the universe.

Americas

Native American religion

Native American religions may be monotheistic, polytheistic, henotheistic, animistic, or some combination thereof. Cherokee religion, for example, is monotheist as well as pantheist.

The Great Spirit, called Wakan Tanka among the Sioux, and Gitche Manitou in Algonquian, is a conception of universal spiritual force, or supreme being prevalent among some Native American and First Nation cultures. According to Lakota activist Russell Means a better translation of Wakan Tanka is the Great Mystery. Indeed, "Wanka Tanka" among the Lakota was considered a "council of gods" in pre-columbian times, and their religion is not monotheistic.

Some researchers have interpreted Aztec philosophy as fundamentally monotheistic or panentheistic. While the populace at large believed in a polytheistic pantheon, Aztec priests and nobles might have come to an interpretation of Teotl as a single universal force with many facets. There has been criticism to this idea, however, most notably that many assertions of this supposed monotheism might actually come from post-Conquistador bias, imposing an Antiquity pagan model onto the Aztec.

Eastern Asia

Chinese religion

Main articles: Shangdi, Tian, and Mohism

Shang dynasty bronze script character for tian (天), which translates to Heaven and sky

The orthodox faith system held by most dynasties of China since at least the Shang dynasty (1766 BCE) until the modern period centered on the worship of Shangdi (literally "Above Sovereign", generally translated as "High-god") or Heaven as a supreme being, standing above other gods. This faith system pre-dated the development of Confucianism and Taoism and the introduction of Buddhism and Christianity. It has some features of monotheism in that Heaven is seen as an omnipotent entity, a noncorporeal force with a personality transcending the world. However, this faith system was not truly monotheistic since other lesser gods and spirits, which varied with locality, were also worshiped along with Shangdi. Still, later variants such as Mohism (470 BCE–c.391 BCE) approached true monotheism, teaching that the function of lesser gods and ancestral spirits is merely to carry out the will of Shangdi. In Mozi's Will of Heaven (天志), he writes:

I know Heaven loves men dearly not without reason. Heaven ordered the sun, the moon, and the stars to enlighten and guide them. Heaven ordained the four seasons, Spring, Autumn, Winter, and Summer, to regulate them. Heaven sent down snow, frost, rain, and dew to grow the five grains and flax and silk that so the people could use and enjoy them. Heaven established the hills and rivers, ravines and valleys, and arranged many things to minister to man's good or bring him evil. He appointed the dukes and lords to reward the virtuous and punish the wicked, and to gather metal and wood, birds and beasts, and to engage in cultivating the five grains and flax and silk to provide for the people's food and clothing. This has been so from antiquity to the present.

且吾所以知天之愛民之厚者有矣，曰以磨為日月星辰，以昭道之；制為四時春秋冬夏，以紀綱之；雷降雪霜雨露，以長遂五穀麻絲，使民得而財利之；列為山川谿谷，播賦百事，以臨司民之善否；為王公侯伯，使之賞賢而罰暴；賊金木鳥獸，從事乎五穀麻絲，以為民衣食之財。自古及今，未嘗不有此也。

— Will of Heaven, Chapter 27, Paragraph 6, ca. 5th century BCE

Worship of Shangdi and Heaven in ancient China includes the erection of shrines, the last and greatest being the Temple of Heaven in Beijing, and the offering of prayers. The ruler of China in every Chinese dynasty would perform annual sacrificial rituals to Shangdi, usually by slaughtering a completely healthy bull as sacrifice. Although its popularity gradually diminished after the advent of Taoism and Buddhism, among other religions, its concepts remained in use throughout the pre-modern period and have been incorporated in later religions in China, including terminology used by early Christians in China. Despite the rising of non-theistic and pantheistic spirituality contributed by Taoism and Buddhism, Shangdi was still praised up until the end of the Qing dynasty as the last ruler of the Qing declared himself son of heaven.

In the 19th century in the Guangdong region, monotheist influences led to the Taiping Rebellion.

Tengrism

See also: Tengrism

Tengrism or Tangrism (sometimes stylized as Tengriism), occasionally referred to as Tengrianism, is a modern term for a Central Asian religion characterized by features of shamanism, animism, totemism, both polytheism and monotheism, and ancestor worship. Historically, it was the prevailing religion of the Bulgars, Turks, Mongols, and Hungarians, as well as the Xiongnu and the Huns. It was the state religion of the six ancient Turkic states: Avar Khaganate, Old Great Bulgaria, First Bulgarian Empire, Göktürks Khaganate, Eastern Tourkia and Western Turkic Khaganate. In Irk Bitig, Tengri is mentioned as Türük Tängrisi (God of Turks). The term is perceived among Turkic peoples as a national religion.

In Chinese and Turco-Mongol traditions, the Supreme God is commonly referred to as the ruler of Heaven, or the Sky Lord granted with omnipotent powers, but it has largely diminished in those regions due to ancestor worship, Taoism's pantheistic views and Buddhism's rejection of a creator God. On some occasions in the mythology, the Sky Lord as identified as a male has been associated to mate with an Earth Mother, while some traditions kept the omnipotence of the Sky Lord unshared.

Europe

Ancient proto-Indo-European religion

Main article: Proto-Indo-European religion

The head deity of the Proto-Indo-European religion was the god *Dyḗus Pḥ_atḗr . A number of words derived from the name of this prominent deity are used in various Indo-European languages to denote a monotheistic God. Nonetheless, in spite of this, Proto-Indo-European religion itself was not monotheistic.

In Eastern Europe, the ancient traditions of the Slavic religion contained elements of monotheism. In the sixth century AD, the Byzantine chronicler Procopius recorded that the Slavs "acknowledge that one god, creator of lightning, is the only lord of all: to him do they sacrifice an ox and all sacrificial animals." The deity to whom Procopius is referring is the storm god Perún, whose name is derived from *Perk^wunos, the Proto-Indo-European god of lightning. The ancient Slavs syncretized him with the Germanic god Thor and the Biblical prophet Elijah.

Ancient Greek religion

Main article: Ancient Greek religion

Classical Greece

Fictionalized portrait of Xenophanes from a 17th-century engraving

The surviving fragments of the poems of the classical Greek philosopher Xenophanes of Colophon suggest that he held views very similar to those of modern monotheists. His poems harshly criticize the traditional notion of anthropomorphic gods, commenting that "...if cattle and horses and lions had hands or could paint with their hands and create works such as men do,... [they] also would depict the gods' shapes and make their bodies of such a sort as the form they themselves have." Instead, Xenophanes declares that there is "...one god, greatest among gods and humans, like mortals neither in form nor in thought." Xenophanes's theology appears to have been monist, but not truly monotheistic in the strictest sense. Although some later philosophers, such as Antisthenes, believed in doctrines similar to those expounded by Xenophanes, his ideas do not appear to have become widely popular.

Although Plato himself was a polytheist, in his writings, he often presents Socrates as speaking of "the god" in the singular form. He does, however, often speak of the gods in the plural form as well. The Euthyphro dilemma, for example, is formulated as "Is that which is holy loved by the gods because it is holy, or is it holy because it is loved by the gods?"

Hellenistic religion

Main article: Hellenistic religion

The development of pure (philosophical) monotheism is a product of the Late Antiquity. During the 2nd to 3rd centuries, early Christianity was just one of several competing religious movements advocating monotheism.

"The One" (Τὸ Ἕν) is a concept that is prominent in the writings of the Neoplatonists, especially those of the philosopher Plotinus. In the writings of Plotinus, "The One" is described as an inconceivable, transcendent, all-embodying, permanent, eternal, causative entity that permeates throughout all of existence.

Remains of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, Greece

A number of oracles of Apollo from Didyma and Clarus, the so-called "theological oracles", dated to the 2nd and 3rd century CE, proclaim that there is only one highest god, of whom the gods of polytheistic religions are mere manifestations or servants. 4th century CE Cyprus had, besides Christianity, an apparently monotheistic cult of Dionysus.

The Hypsistarians were a religious group who believed in a most high god, according to Greek documents. Later revisions of this Hellenic religion were adjusted towards monotheism as it gained consideration among a wider populace. The worship of Zeus as the head-god signaled a trend in the direction of monotheism, with less honour paid to the fragmented powers of the lesser gods.

Western Asia

Abrahamic religions

Main article: Abrahamic religions

Further information: God in Abrahamic religions

Judaism

Main articles: God in Judaism, Yahwism, Elohim, and Baal

The tetragrammaton in Paleo-Hebrew (10th century BCE to 135 CE), old Aramaic (10th century BCE to 4th century CE), and square Hebrew (3rd century BCE to present) scripts

Judaism is traditionally considered one of the oldest monotheistic religions in the world, although up to the 8th century BCE the Israelites were polytheistic, with their worship including the gods El, Baal, Asherah, and Astarte. Yahweh was originally the national god of the Kingdom of Israel and the Kingdom of Judah. During the 8th century BCE, the worship of Yahweh in Israel was in competition with many other cults, described by the Yahwist faction collectively as Baals. The oldest books of the Hebrew Bible reflect this competition, as in the books of Hosea and Nahum, whose authors lament the "apostasy" of the people of Israel, threatening them with the wrath of God if they do not give up their polytheistic cults.

As time progressed, the henotheistic cult of Yahweh grew increasingly militant in its opposition to the worship of other gods. Some scholars date the start of widespread monotheism to the late 8th century BCE, and view it as a response to Neo-Assyrian aggression. Later, the reforms of King Josiah imposed a form of strict monolatrism. After the fall of Judah and the beginning of the Babylonian captivity, a small circle of priests and scribes gathered around the exiled royal court, where they first developed the concept of Yahweh as the sole God of the world.

Second Temple Judaism and later Rabbinic Judaism became strictly monotheistic. The Babylonian Talmud references other, "foreign gods" as non-existent entities to whom humans mistakenly ascribe reality and power. One of the best-known statements of Rabbinic Judaism on monotheism is the Second of Maimonides' 13 Principles of faith:

God, the Cause of all, is one. This does not mean one as in one of a pair, nor one like a species (which encompasses many individuals), nor one as in an object that is made up of many elements, nor as a single simple object that is infinitely divisible. Rather, God is a unity, unlike any other possible unity.

Some in Judaism and Islam reject the Christian idea of monotheism. Modern Judaism uses the term shituf to refer to the worship of God in a manner which Judaism deems to be neither purely monotheistic (though still permissible for non-Jews) nor polytheistic (which would be prohibited).

Christianity

Main articles: God in Christianity and Trinity

The Trinity is the Christian belief that God is one God in essence but three persons: God the Father, God the Son (Jesus), and God the Holy Spirit.

Among early Christians, there was considerable debate over the nature of the Godhead, with some denying the incarnation but not the deity of Jesus (Docetism) and others later calling for an Arian conception of God. Despite at least one earlier local synod rejecting the claim of Arius, this Christological issue was to be one of the items addressed at the First Council of Nicaea.

The First Council of Nicaea, held in Nicaea (in present-day Turkey), convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine I in 325, was the first ecumenical council of bishops of the Roman Empire, and most significantly resulted in the first uniform Christian doctrine, called the Nicene Creed. With the creation of the creed, a precedent was established for subsequent general ecumenical councils of bishops (synods) to create statements of belief and canons of doctrinal orthodoxy—the intent being to define a common creed for the Church and address heretical ideas.

One purpose of the council was to resolve disagreements in Alexandria over the nature of Jesus in relationship to the Father; in particular, whether Jesus was of the same substance as God the Father or merely of similar substance. All but two bishops took the first position; while Arius' argument failed.

God in The Creation of Adam, fresco by Michelangelo (c. 1508–1512)

Christian orthodox traditions (Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and most Protestants) follow this decision, which was reaffirmed in 381 at the First Council of Constantinople and reached its full development through the work of the Cappadocian Fathers. They consider God to be a triune entity, called the Trinity, comprising three "persons", God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. These three are described as being "of the same substance" (ὁμοούσιος).

Christians overwhelmingly assert that monotheism is central to the Christian faith, as the Nicene Creed (and others), which gives the orthodox Christian definition of the Trinity, begins: "I believe in one God". From earlier than the times of the Nicene Creed, 325 CE, various Christian figures advocated the triune mystery-nature of God as a normative profession of faith. According to Roger E. Olson and Christopher Hall, through prayer, meditation, study and practice, the Christian community concluded "that God must exist as both a unity and trinity", codifying this in ecumenical council at the end of the 4th century.

Most modern Christians believe the Godhead is triune, meaning that the three persons of the Trinity are in one union in which each person is also wholly God. They also hold to the doctrine of a man-god Christ Jesus as God incarnate. These Christians also do not believe that one of the three divine figures is God alone and the other two are not but that all three are mysteriously God and one. Other Christian religions, including Unitarian Universalism, Jehovah's Witnesses, Mormonism and others, do not share those views on the Trinity.

Some Christian faiths, such as Mormonism, argue that the Godhead is in fact three separate individuals which include God the Father, His Son Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost, each individual having a distinct purpose in the grand existence of human kind. Furthermore, Mormons believe that before the Council of Nicaea, the predominant belief among many early Christians was that the Godhead was three separate individuals. In support of this view, they cite early Christian examples of belief in subordinationism.

Unitarianism is a theological movement, named for its understanding of God as one person, in direct contrast to Trinitarianism.

Some in Judaism and some in Islam do not consider Trinitarian Christianity to be a pure form of monotheism due to the pluriform monotheistic Christian doctrine of the Trinity, classifying it as shituf in Judaism and as shirk in Islam. Trinitarian Christians, on the other hand, argue that the doctrine of the Trinity is a valid expression of monotheism, citing that the Trinity does not consist of three separate deities, but rather the three persons, who exist consubstantially (as one substance) within a single Godhead.

Islam

Main articles: God in Islam, Tawhid, and Hanif

Arabic calligraphy reading "Allah, may his glory be glorified"

In Islam, God (Allāh) is all-powerful and all-knowing, the Creator, Sustainer, Ordainer and Judge of the universe. God in Islam is strictly singular (tawhid) unique (wahid) and inherently One (ahad), all-merciful and omnipotent. Allāh exists on the Al-'Arsh ^{[Quran 7:54]}, but the Quran states that "No vision can encompass Him, but He encompasses all vision. For He is the Most Subtle, All-Aware." (Quran 6:103) Allāh is the only God and the same God worshiped in Christianity and Judaism(Q29:46).

Islam emerged in the 7th century CE in the context of both Christianity and Judaism, with some thematic elements similar to Gnosticism. Islamic belief states that Muhammad did not bring a new religion from God, but rather the same religion as practiced by Abraham, Moses, David, Jesus and all the other prophets of God. The assertion of Islam is that the message of God had been corrupted, distorted or lost over time, and the Quran was sent to Muhammad in order to correct the lost message of the Tawrat (Torah), Injil (Gospel) and Zabur.

The Quran asserts the existence of a single and absolute truth that transcends the world; a unique and indivisible being who is independent of the creation. The Quran rejects binary modes of thinking such as the idea of a duality of God by arguing that both good and evil generate from God's creative act. God is a universal god rather than a local, tribal or parochial one; an absolute who integrates all affirmative values and brooks no evil. Ash'ari theology, which dominated Sunni Islam from the tenth to the nineteenth century, insists on ultimate divine transcendence and holds that divine unity is not accessible to human reason. Ash'arism teaches that human knowledge regarding it is limited to what has been revealed through the prophets, and on such paradoxes as God's creation of evil, revelation had to accept bila kayfa (without [asking] how).

Tawhid constitutes the foremost article of the Muslim profession of faith, "There is no god but God, Muhammad is the messenger of God. To attribute divinity to a created entity is the only unpardonable sin mentioned in the Quran. The entirety of the Islamic teaching rests on the principle of tawhid.

Medieval Islamic philosopher Al-Ghazali offered a proof of monotheism from omnipotence, asserting there can only be one omnipotent being. For if there were two omnipotent beings, the first would either have power over the second (meaning the second is not omnipotent) or not (meaning the first is not omnipotent); thus implying that there could only be one omnipotent being.

As they traditionally profess a concept of monotheism with a singular entity as God, Judaism and Islam reject the Christian idea of monotheism. Judaism uses the term Shituf to refer to non-monotheistic ways of worshiping God. Although Muslims venerate Jesus (Isa in Arabic) as a prophet and messiah, they do not accept the doctrine that he was a begotten son of God.

Mandaeism

Mandaean pendant

Main articles: Mandaeism and Mandaeans

Mandaeism or Mandaeanism (Arabic: مندائية Mandāʼīyah), sometimes also known as Sabianism, is a monotheistic, Gnostic, and ethnic religion. Mandaeans consider Adam, Seth, Noah, Shem and John the Baptist to be prophets, with Adam being the founder of the religion and John being the greatest and final prophet. The Mandaeans believe in one God commonly named Hayyi Rabbi meaning 'The Great Life' or 'The Great Living God'. The Mandaeans speak a dialect of Eastern Aramaic known as Mandaic. The name 'Mandaean' comes from the Aramaic manda meaning "knowledge", as does Greek gnosis. The term 'Sabianism' is derived from the Sabians (Arabic: الصابئة, al-Ṣābiʾa), a mysterious religious group mentioned three times in the Quran alongside the Jews, the Christians and the Zoroastrians as a 'people of the book', and whose name was historically claimed by the Mandaeans as well as by several other religious groups in order to gain the legal protection (dhimma) offered by Islamic law. Mandaeans recognize God to be the eternal, creator of all, the one and only in domination who has no partner.

Baháʼí Faith

Main article: God in the Baháʼí Faith

Baháʼí House of Worship, Langenhain, Germany

God in the Baháʼí Faith is taught to be the Imperishable, uncreated Being Who is the source of existence, too great for humans to fully comprehend. Human primitive understanding of God is achieved through his revelations via his divine intermediary Manifestations. In the Baháʼí faith, such Christian doctrines as the Trinity are seen as compromising the Baháʼí view that God is single and has no equal, and the very existence of the Baháʼí Faith is a challenge to the Islamic doctrine of the finality of Muhammad's revelation.

God in the Baháʼí Faith communicates to humanity through divine intermediaries, known as Manifestations of God. These Manifestations establish religion in the world. It is through these divine intermediaries that humans can approach God, and through them God brings divine revelation and law.

The Oneness of God is one of the core teachings of the Baháʼí Faith. The obligatory prayers in the Baháʼí Faith involve explicit monotheistic testimony. God is the imperishable, uncreated being who is the source of all existence. He is described as "a personal God, unknowable, inaccessible, the source of all Revelation, eternal, omniscient, omnipresent and almighty". Although transcendent and inaccessible directly, his image is reflected in his creation. The purpose of creation is for the created to have the capacity to know and love its creator. God communicates his will and purpose to humanity through intermediaries, known as Manifestations of God, who are the prophets and messengers that have founded religions from prehistoric times up to the present day.

Rastafari

Rastafari, sometimes termed Rastafarianism, is classified as both a new religious movement and social movement. It developed in Jamaica during the 1930s. It lacks any centralised authority and there is much heterogeneity among practitioners, who are known as Rastafari, Rastafarians, or Rastas.

Rastafari refer to their beliefs, which are based on a specific interpretation of the Bible, as "Rastalogy". Central is a monotheistic belief in a single God—referred to as Jah—who partially resides within each individual. The former emperor of Ethiopia, Haile Selassie, is given central importance. Many Rastas regard him as an incarnation of Jah on Earth and as the Second Coming of Christ. Others regard him as a human prophet who fully recognised the inner divinity within every individual.

Zoroastrianism

Main articles: Zoroastrianism and Iranian religions

Faravahar (or Ferohar) is one of the primary symbols of Zoroastrianism, believed to be the depiction of a Fravashi (guardian spirit).

By some scholars, the Zoroastrians ("Parsis" or "Zartoshtis") are sometimes credited with being some of the first monotheists and having had influence on other world religions. Zoroastrianism combines cosmogonic dualism and eschatological monotheism which makes it unique among the religions of the world. There are two issues that have long made it problematic to identify Zoroastrianism as true monotheism: the presence of lesser deities and dualism. But before hastening to conclude that the Amesha Spentas and the other yazatas compromise the purity of monotheism, we should consider that the other historical monotheisms too made room for other figures endowed with supernatural powers to bridge the gulf between the exalted, remote Creator God and the human world: the angels in all of them (whose conception in post-exilic Judaism was apparently developed after the pattern of the Amesha Spentas; Boyce and Grenet, 1991, 404–405), the saints and the Virgin Mary in several Christian churches, and the other persons of the Trinity in all of Christianity. Despite the vast differences with Zoroastrian theology, the common thread is that all these beings are subordinate to the Godhead as helpers or (in the case of the persons of the Trinity) co-equals, hence they do not pursue different interests and are worshiped jointly with the Godhead, not separately; therefore the supplicant’s dilemma does not arise.^[ε]

Yazidism

Main article: Yazidism

God in Yazidism created the world and entrusted it into the care of seven Holy Beings, known as Angels. The Yazidis believe in a divine Triad. The original, hidden God of the Yazidis is considered to be remote and inactive in relation to his creation, except to contain and bind it together within his essence. His first emanation is the Angel Melek Taûs (Tawûsê Melek), who functions as the ruler of the world and leader of the other Angels. The second hypostasis of the divine Triad is the Sheikh 'Adī ibn Musafir. The third is Sultan Ezid. These are the three hypostases of the one God. The identity of these three is sometimes blurred, with Sheikh 'Adī considered to be a manifestation of Tawûsê Melek and vice versa; the same also applies to Sultan Ezid. Yazidis are called Miletê Tawûsê Melek ("the nation of Tawûsê Melek").

God is referred to by Yazidis as Xwedê, Xwedawend, Êzdan, and Pedsha ('King'), and, less commonly, Ellah and Heq. According to some Yazidi hymns (known as Qewls), God has 1,001 names, or 3,003 names according to other Qewls.

Oceania

Aboriginal Australian religion

Aboriginal Australians are typically described as polytheistic in nature. Although some researchers shy from referring to Dreamtime figures as "gods" or "deities", they are broadly described as such for the sake of simplicity.

In Southeastern Australian cultures, the sky father Baiame is perceived as the creator of the universe (though this role is sometimes taken by other gods like Yhi or Bunjil) and at least among the Gamilaraay traditionally revered above other mythical figures. Equation between him and the Christian god is common among both missionaries and modern Christian Aboriginals.

The Yolngu had extensive contact with the Makassans and adopted religious practises inspired by those of Islam. The god Walitha'walitha is based on Allah (specifically, with the wa-Ta'ala suffix), but while this deity had a role in funerary practises it is unclear if it was "Allah-like" in terms of functions.

Andaman Islands

The religion of the Andamanese peoples has at times been described as "animistic monotheism", believing foremost in a single deity, Pūluga, who created the universe. However, Pūluga is not worshipped, and anthropomorphic personifications of natural phenomena are also known.

South Asia

Main articles: Proto-Indo-Iranian religion and Indian religions

Hinduism

Main articles: Hindu views on monotheism and God in Hinduism

See also: Hindu denominations

Krishna displaying his Vishvarupa (universal form) to Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra

As an old religion, Hinduism inherits religious concepts spanning monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, monism, and atheism among others; and its concept of God is complex and depends upon each individual and the tradition and philosophy followed.

Hindu views are broad and range from monism, through pantheism and panentheism (alternatively called monistic theism by some scholars) to monotheism and even atheism. Hinduism cannot be said to be purely polytheistic. Hindu religious leaders have repeatedly stressed that while God's forms are many and the ways to communicate with him are many, God is one. The puja of the murti is a way to communicate with the abstract one god (Brahman) which creates, sustains and dissolves creation.

Rig Veda 1.164.46,

Indraṃ mitraṃ varuṇamaghnimāhuratho divyaḥ sa suparṇo gharutmān,

экам сад випра бахудха вадантьаггним йамам матаришванамахух

«Они называют его Индрой, Митрой, Варуной, Агни, и он — небесный благороднокрылый Гаруда.

Тому, что Едино, мудрецы дают множество титулов, которые они называют Агни, Яма, Матаришван». (перевод Гриффита )

Традиции Гаудия-вайшнавов, Нимбарка-сампрадаи и последователи Сваминараяна и Валлабхи считают Кришну источником всех аватаров , и источником самого Вишну , или быть таким же, как Нараяна . Поэтому его считают Сваям Бхагаваном .

Когда Кришну признают Сваямом Бхагаваном , можно понять, что это вера Гаудия-вайшнавизма . Валлабха -сампрадая , и Нимбарка-сампрадайя , где Кришна считается источником всех других аватаров, а также источником самого Вишну . Это убеждение вытекает прежде всего «из знаменитого утверждения Бхагаватам». (1.3.28). отличающаяся от этой богословской концепции, - это концепция Кришны как аватара Нараяны Точка зрения , или Вишну . Однако следует отметить, что хотя обычно говорят о Вишну как об источнике аватар, это лишь одно из имен Бога вайшнавизма , который также известен как Нараяна, Васудева и Кришна и стоит за каждым из этих имен. В вайшнавизме есть божественная фигура, которой приписывают превосходство.

В Ригведе обсуждается монотеистическая мысль, как и в Атхарваведе и Яджурведе : «Дэвы всегда взирают на высшую обитель Вишну» ( тад вишнох парамам падам сада пашйанти сураях Риг Веда 1.22.20)

«Единую Истину мудрецы знают под многими именами» ( Ригведа 1.164.46 )

«Когда впервые возникло нерожденное, Он завоевал Свою собственную власть, за пределами которой не существовало ничего более высокого» ( Атхарва Веда, 10.7.31).

«Нет никого, кто мог бы сравниться с Ним. Нет аналога Тому, Чья слава, воистину, велика». ( Яджур Веда 32.3)

Число благоприятных качеств Бога бесчисленно, но следующие шесть качеств ( бхага наиболее важными из них являются ):

• Джняна (всеведение), определяемое как способность знать обо всех существах одновременно.
• Айшварья (суверенитет, производное от слова Ишвара ), заключающийся в неоспоримом правлении над всеми
• Шакти (энергия), или сила, способность делать невозможное возможным.
• Бала (сила), то есть способность выдерживать все силой воли и без какой-либо усталости.
• Вирья (энергия), которая указывает на способность сохранять нематериальность как высшее существо, несмотря на то, что она является материальной причиной изменчивых творений.
• Теджас (великолепие), который выражает Его самодостаточность и способность преодолевать все Своим духовным сиянием.

В шиваитской традиции Шри Рудрам ( санскр. Шри Рудрам), к которому по библейской традиции добавлена ​​Чамакам (Чамакам), представляет собой индуистскую стотру, посвященную Рудре (эпитету Шивы ), взятую из Яджурведы (ТС 4.5, 4.7). ). Шри Рудрам также известен как Шри Рудрапрасна , Шатарудрия и Рудрадхьяя . Этот текст важен для Веданты , где Шива приравнивается к Вселенскому верховному Богу. Гимн является ранним примером перечисления имен божества . эта традиция получила широкое развитие в сахасранамы литературе индуизма .

Школа индуизма ньяя выдвинула несколько аргументов в пользу монотеистического взгляда. Наияники привели аргумент, что такой бог может быть только один. В « Ньяя Кусуманджали » это обсуждается вопреки утверждению школы Мимамсы , согласно которой было много полубогов ( дэвов ) и мудрецов ( риши вначале ), которые написали Веды и создали мир. Ньяя говорит, что:

[Если они предполагают, что такие] всеведущие существа, наделенные различными сверхчеловеческими способностями принимать бесконечно малые размеры и так далее, и способные создать всё, то мы ответим, что закон бережливости предписывает нам предполагать только одного такого, а именно Его, очаровательный Господь. Не может быть никакой уверенности в невечном и невсеведущем существе, и отсюда следует, что согласно системе, отвергающей Бога, одновременно низвергается и традиция Вед; другого пути нет.

Другими словами, Ньяя говорит, что многобожнику пришлось бы предоставить тщательно продуманные доказательства существования и происхождения нескольких своих небесных духов, ни один из которых не был бы логичным, и что более логично предположить одного вечного, всеведущего бога.

Однако многие другие индуисты считают политеизм гораздо предпочтительнее монотеизма. Знаменитый лидер индуистских возрожденцев Рам Сваруп , например, указывает на Веды как на специфически политеистические, и заявляет, что «только некоторая форма политеизма может отдать должное этому разнообразию и богатству».

Сита Рам Гоэл , еще один индуистский историк XX века, писала:

У меня была возможность прочитать машинописный текст книги, которую [Рам Сваруп] закончил писать в 1973 году. Это было глубокое исследование монотеизма, центральной догмы как ислама, так и христианства, а также мощное представление того, что монотеисты осуждают как Индуистский политеизм. Я никогда не читал ничего подобного. Для меня было открытием, что Монотеизм был не религиозной концепцией, а империалистической идеей. Должен признаться, что до этого времени я сам был склонен к монотеизму. Я никогда не думал, что множественность Богов является естественным и спонтанным выражением развитого сознания.

сикхизм

Основная статья: сикхизм

Сикхский храм, известный как Нанаксар Гурудвара , в Альберте , Канада.

Ик Онкар , сикхский символ, олицетворяющий «Единую Высшую Реальность».

Сикхи – монотеист и открытая религия . Бога в сикхизме называют Акал Пуракх (что означает «Бессмертное существо») или Вахигуру (Чудесный Просветитель). Однако другие имена, такие как Рама , Брахман , Худа , Аллах и т. д., также используются для обозначения того же Бога, который бесформен , вневременен и незряч : ниранкар , акаал и алах . Сикхи представляет собой уникальную перспективу, в которой Бог присутствует ( сарав виапак ) во всем его творении и не существует вне его творения. Бога нужно видеть «внутренним оком» или «сердцем». Сикхи следуют Аад Гуру Грантх Сахиб и получают указание медитировать на Наам (Имя Бога - Вахигуру ), чтобы продвигаться к просветлению, поскольку его строгое применение позволяет существовать общению между Богом и людьми.

Сикхизм – монотеистическая вера возникший в регионе Пенджаб на Индийском субконтиненте в XVI и XVII веках. Сикхи верят в одного, вневременного, вездесущего, верховного творца. Вступительный стих Гуру Грантха Сахиба , известный как Мул Мантра , означает это:

Пенджаби : ੴ Сат Наму Карта Пуркху Нирбхау Нирваиру Акал Мурти Аджуни Саибхан Гур Прасад ॥

Транслитерация : икк оанкар сат(и)-нам(у) карата пратах(у) нирабха'у нираваир(у) акал мурат(и) аюни саибхан (г) гур(а) прасад(и).

Один Вселенский Бог-творец, Высшая Неизменная Истина, Создатель Вселенной, За пределами Страха, За пределами Ненависти, За пределами Смерти, За пределами Рождения, Самосуществующий, по Милости Гуру.

Слово «ੴ» («Ик Оанкар») состоит из двух компонентов. Первый — ੧, цифра «1» в языке гурмукхи, обозначающая уникальность создателя. Вместе это слово означает: «Единый Вселенский Бог-творец».

Часто говорят, что все 1430 страниц «Гуру Грантх Сахиб» являются расширениями Мул Мантры. Хотя у сикхов есть много имен Бога, некоторые из которых заимствованы из ислама и индуизма , все они относятся к одному и тому же Высшему Существу.

Священные писания сикхов относятся к Единому Богу, который пронизывает все пространство и является создателем всех существ во вселенной . Следующая цитата Гуру Грантха Сахиба подчеркивает этот момент:

Пойте и медитируйте на Единого Бога, который пронизывает и пронизывает множество существ всей Вселенной. Бог создал его, и Бог распространяется через него повсюду. Куда бы я ни посмотрел, я вижу Бога. Совершенный Господь совершенно пронизывает и пронизывает воду, землю и небо; без Него нет места.

— Гуру Грантх Сахиб, стр. 782.

Однако есть веские основания утверждать, что Гуру Грантх Сахиб учит монизму из-за его недуалистических тенденций:

Пенджаби : Сахас Пад Бимал Нан Эк Пад Ганд Бину Сахас Тав Ганд Ив Чалат Мохи

У Тебя тысячи лотосных стоп, но у Тебя нет ни одной стопы. У вас нет носа, но у вас тысячи носов. Эта Ваша пьеса меня очаровывает.

—Гуру Грантх Сахиб , стр. 13

Сикхи верят, что Богу было дано много имен, но все они относятся к Единому Богу, ВахиГуру . Священное писание сикхов (Гуру Грантх Сахиб) обращается ко всем вероисповеданиям, и сикхи верят, что представители других религий, таких как ислам, индуизм и христианство, поклоняются одному и тому же Богу, и поэтому имена Аллах , Рахим , Карим , Хари , Раам и Парбрахм являются, следовательно, , часто упоминаемый в священном писании сикхов (Гуру Грантх Сахиб). Бога в сикхизме чаще всего называют Акал Пурах (что означает «Бессмертное существо») или Вахегуру , Чудесный Просветитель.

Критика

Основная статья: Критика монотеизма

Смотрите также: Критика религии

Критики описали монотеизм как причину невежества, угнетения и насилия.

Дэвид Юм (1711–1776) сказал, что монотеизм менее плюралистичен и, следовательно, менее толерантен, чем политеизм , поскольку монотеизм предполагает, что люди объединяют свои убеждения в один принцип. В том же духе Огюст Конт говорил, что «монотеизм несовместим с существованием в нашей природе инстинктов доброжелательности», поскольку он вынуждает последователей посвятить себя единому Творцу. Марк С. Смит , американский библеист и историк древности, писал, что монотеизм был «тотальным дискурсом», часто поглощающим все аспекты системы социальных убеждений, что приводило к исключению «других». Джейкоб Нойснер предполагает, что «логика монотеизма ... не дает оснований для терпимости к другим религиям».

Древний монотеизм описывается как подстрекатель насилия израильтян в первые дни его существования, поскольку он вдохновил на ведение войны с хананеями , которые верили в нескольких богов. Сарвепалли Радхакришнан считал монотеизм причиной насилия, говоря: «Нетерпимость к узкому монотеизму написана кровавыми буквами в истории человечества с тех пор, как колена Израиля впервые ворвались в землю Ханаанскую. ревнивый Бог подстрекает к агрессивным войнам против людей чуждых [верований и культур]. Они взывают к божественной санкции за жестокость, причиненную побежденным. Дух старого Израиля унаследован христианством и исламом, и было бы небезосновательно предположить. что для западной цивилизации было бы лучше, если бы этот вопрос решала Греция, а не Палестина».

См. также

• Сейчо но Ие
• Чеондоизм
• Тенрикё
• Критика монотеизма
• Деизм
• Идолопоклонство
• Интеллектуальный дизайн
• Панентеизм
• Пантеизм
• Постмонотеизм
• Неподвижный движитель

Дальнейшее чтение

• Бернард, Дэвид К. (2019) [2016]. «Монотеизм в риторическом мире Павла» . Слава Божья в лице Иисуса Христа: обожение Иисуса в раннехристианском дискурсе . Журнал пятидесятнического богословия: серия дополнений. Том. 45. Лейден и Бостон : Издательство Brill . стр. 53–82. ISBN  978-90-04-39721-7 . ISSN   0966-7393 .
• Бетц, Арнольд Готфрид (2000). «Монотеизм» . Во Фридмане, Дэвид Ноэль; Майер, Аллен С. (ред.). Библейский словарь Эрдмана . Гранд-Рапидс, Мичиган : Wm. Б. Эрдманс . стр. 916–917. ISBN  9053565035 .
• Уильям Дж. Девер , Кем были первые израильтяне? , Гранд-Рапидс, Мичиган: Эрдманс, 2003.
• Уильям Г. Девер, Была ли у Бога жена?: Археология и народная религия в древнем Израиле , Эрдманс, 2005 г., ISBN   978-0802828521 .
• Джонтан Кирш, Бог против богов: история войны между монотеизмом и политеизмом. Книги о пингвинах. 2005.
• Ганс Кёхлер . Концепция единобожия в исламе и христианстве . Вена: Браумюллер, 1982. ISBN   3-7003-0339-4 ( Книги Google, заархивировано 5 апреля 2023 г. в Wayback Machine ).
• Ньер, Герберт (1995). «Возвышение ЯХВЕ в иудейской и израильской религии: методологические и религиозно-исторические аспекты» . В Эдельмане, Диана Викандер (ред.). Триумф Элохима: от яхвизма к иудаизму . Левен : Издательство Peeters . стр. 45–72. ISBN  978-9053565032 . ОСЛК   33819403 .
• Патай, Рафаэль (1990) [1967]. «Лилит» . Еврейская богиня . Серия Рафаэля Патай по еврейскому фольклору и антропологии (3-е расширенное изд.). Детройт : Издательство Государственного университета Уэйна . стр. 221–251. ISBN  9780814322710 . ОСЛК   20692501 .
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Внешние ссылки

• Словарное определение монотеизма в Викисловаре
• СМИ, связанные с монотеизмом, на Викискладе?
• About.com «Что такое монолатрия?» (Содержит полезные сравнения с энотеизмом и т. д.)
• Стэнфордская энциклопедия философии
• Христианский монотеизм (библейские унитарии)
• Всемирный союз деистов