Османская империя

Эта статья об империи. Чтобы узнать о связанном халифате, см. Османский халифат .

Возвышенное Османское государство Государство против Османской империи Девлет-и Алие-и О с манийе
в. 1299–1922 гг.
Флаг (1844–1922) Герб (1882–1922)
Девиз: Вечное правительство Состояние Вечности «Вечное государство»
Гимн:   show Различный "Mahmudiye Marşı" (1829–1839, 1918–1922) Duration: 1 minute and 36 seconds.1:36 "Mecidiye Marşı" (1839–1861) Duration: 2 minutes and 27 seconds.2:27 "Aziziye Marşı" (1861–1876) "Hamidiye Marşı" (modified) (1876–1909) Duration: 1 minute and 52 seconds.1:52 "Reşadiye Marşı" (1909–1918) Duration: 2 minutes and 59 seconds.2:59
The Ottoman Empire in 1481The Ottoman Empire in 1566The Ottoman Empire in 1683The Ottoman Empire in 1739The Ottoman Empire in 1914Показать все
Status	Empire
Capital	Söğüt (c. 1299–1331) Nicaea (İznik) (1331–1335) Bursa (1335–1363) Adrianople (Edirne) (1363–1453) Constantinople (Istanbul) (1453–1922)
Official languages	Ottoman Turkish
Common languages	Arabic Persian Greek Chagatai French many others
Religion	Sunni Islam (state) School: Hanafi
Demonym(s)	Ottoman
Government	Absolute monarchy (c. 1299–1876; 1878–1908; 1920–1922) Unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy (1876–1878; 1908–1920) Triumvirate dictatorship (1913–1918)
Sultan
• c. 1299–1323/4 (first)	Osman I
• 1918–1922 (last)	Mehmed VI
Caliph
• 1517–1520 (first)	Selim I
• 1922–1924 (last)	Abdulmejid II
Grand vizier
• 1320–1331 (first)	Alaeddin Pasha
• 1920–1922 (last)	Ahmet Tevfik Pasha
Legislature	General Assembly (1876–1878; 1908–1920)
• Upper house (unelected)	Chamber of Notables (1876–1878; 1908–1920)
• Lower house (elected)	Chamber of Deputies (1876–1878; 1908–1920)
History
• Founded	c. 1299
• Interregnum	1402–1413
• Conquest of Constantinople	29 May 1453
• Constitutional Era I	1876–1878
• Constitutional Era II	1908–1920
• Ottoman coup d'état	23 January 1913
• Sultanate abolished	1 November 1922
• Republic of Turkey established	29 October 1923
• Caliphate abolished	3 March 1924
Area
1481	1,220,000 km2 (470,000 sq mi)
1521	3,400,000 km2 (1,300,000 sq mi)
1683	5,200,000 km2 (2,000,000 sq mi)
1913	2,550,000 km2 (980,000 sq mi)
Population
• 1912	24,000,000
Currency	Akçe, sultani, para, kuruş (piastre), lira
show Predecessor states and successor states Preceded by Succeeded by Sultanate of Rum Anatolian beyliks Byzantine Empire Despotate of the Morea Empire of Trebizond Principality of Theodoro Second Bulgarian Empire Tsardom of Vidin Despotate of Dobruja Despotate of Lovech Serbian Despotate Kingdom of Bosnia Zeta Kingdom of Hungary Kingdom of Croatia League of Lezhë Mamluk Sultanate Hafsid Kingdom Aq Qoyunlu Hospitaller Tripoli Kingdom of Tlemcen State of Turkey Hellenic Republic Caucasus Viceroyalty Principality of Bulgaria Eastern Rumelia Albania Kingdom of Romania Revolutionary Serbia Bosnia and Herzegovina Principality of Montenegro Emirate of Asir Kingdom of Hejaz OETA Mandatory Iraq French Algeria British Cyprus French Tunisia Italian Tripolitania Italian Cyrenaica Sheikhdom of Kuwait Kingdom of Yemen Sultanate of Egypt

Османская империя , исторически и в просторечии известная как Турецкая империя , было имперским царством с центром в Анатолии, которая контролировала большую часть Юго-Восточной Европы , Западной Азии и Северной Африки с 14 по начало 20 веков; он также контролировал части юго-восточной части Центральной Европы в период с начала 16 по начало 18 веков.

The empire emerged from a beylik, or principality, founded in northwestern Anatolia in 1299 by the Turkoman tribal leader Osman I. His successors conquered much of Anatolia and expanded into the Balkans by the mid-14th century, transforming their petty kingdom into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II, which marked the Ottomans' emergence as a major regional power. Under Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566), the empire reached the peak of its power, prosperity, and political development. By the start of the 17th century, the Ottomans presided over 32 provinces and numerous vassal states, which over time were either absorbed into the Empire or granted various degrees of autonomy. Османская империя со столицей в Константинополе (современный Стамбул ) и контролем над значительной частью Средиземноморского бассейна на протяжении шести столетий находилась в центре взаимодействия между Ближним Востоком и Европой.

While the Ottoman Empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline after the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, modern academic consensus posits that the empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society and military into much of the 18th century. However, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind those of its chief European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian empires. The Ottomans consequently suffered severe military defeats in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, culminating in the loss of both territory and global prestige. This prompted a comprehensive process of reform and modernization known as the Tanzimat; over the course of the 19th century, the Ottoman state became vastly more powerful and organized internally, despite suffering further territorial losses, especially in the Balkans, where a number of new states emerged.

Beginning in the late 19th century, various Ottoman intellectuals sought to further liberalize society and politics along European lines, culminating in the Young Turk Revolution of 1908 led by the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), which established the Second Constitutional Era and introduced competitive multi-party elections under a constitutional monarchy. However, following the disastrous Balkan Wars, the CUP became increasingly radicalized and nationalistic, leading a coup d'état in 1913 that established a one-party regime. The CUP allied with the German Empire hoping to escape from the diplomatic isolation that had contributed to its recent territorial losses; it thus joined World War I on the side of the Central Powers. While the empire was able to largely hold its own during the conflict, it struggled with internal dissent, especially the Arab Revolt. During this period, the Ottoman government engaged in genocide against Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks.

In the aftermath of World War I, the victorious Allied Powers occupied and partitioned the Ottoman Empire, which lost its southern territories to the United Kingdom and France. The successful Turkish War of Independence, led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk against the occupying Allies, led to the emergence of the Republic of Turkey in the Anatolian heartland and the abolition of the Ottoman monarchy in 1922, formally ending the Ottoman Empire.

Name

See also: Osman I § Name

The word Ottoman is a historical anglicisation of the name of Osman I, the founder of the Empire and of the ruling House of Osman (also known as the Ottoman dynasty). Osman's name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān (عثمان). In Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye (دولت عليه عثمانیه), lit. 'Sublime Ottoman State', or simply Devlet-i ʿOsmānīye (دولت عثمانيه‎), lit. 'Ottoman State'.

The Turkish word for "Ottoman" (Osmanlı) originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century. The word subsequently came to be used to refer to the empire's military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term "Turk" (Türk) was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population and was seen as a disparaging term when applied to urban, educated individuals. In the early modern period, an educated, urban-dwelling Turkish speaker who was not a member of the military-administrative class typically referred to themselves neither as an Osmanlı nor as a Türk, but rather as a Rūmī (رومى), or "Roman", meaning an inhabitant of the territory of the former Byzantine Empire in the Balkans and Anatolia. The term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. As applied to Ottoman Turkish speakers, this term began to fall out of use at the end of the seventeenth century, and instead the word increasingly became associated with the Greek population of the empire, a meaning that it still bears in Turkey today.

In Western Europe, the names Ottoman Empire, Turkish Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favoured both in formal and informal situations. This dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–1923, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. At present, most scholarly historians avoid the terms "Turkey", "Turks", and "Turkish" when referring to the Ottomans, due to the empire's multinational character.

History

Main article: History of the Ottoman Empire

See also: Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire was founded c. 1299 by Osman I as a small beylik in northwestern Asia Minor just south of the Byzantine capital Constantinople. In 1326, the Ottomans captured nearby Bursa, cutting off Asia Minor from Byzantine control. The Ottomans first crossed into Europe in 1352, establishing a permanent settlement at Çimpe Castle on the Dardanelles in 1354 and moving their capital to Edirne (Adrianople) in 1369. At the same time, the numerous small Turkic states in Asia Minor were assimilated into the budding Ottoman sultanate through conquest or declarations of allegiance.

As Sultan Mehmed II conquered Constantinople (today named Istanbul) in 1453, transforming it into the new Ottoman capital, the state grew into a substantial empire, expanding deep into Europe, northern Africa and the Middle East. With most of the Balkans under Ottoman rule by the mid-16th century, Ottoman territory increased exponentially under Sultan Selim I, who assumed the Caliphate in 1517 as the Ottomans turned east and conquered western Arabia, Egypt, Mesopotamia and the Levant, among other territories. Within the next few decades, much of the North African coast (except Morocco) became part of the Ottoman realm.

The empire reached its apex under Suleiman the Magnificent in the 16th century, when it stretched from the Persian Gulf in the east to Algeria in the west, and from Yemen in the south to Hungary and parts of Ukraine in the north. According to the Ottoman decline thesis, Suleiman's reign was the zenith of the Ottoman classical period, during which Ottoman culture, arts, and political influence flourished. The empire reached its maximum territorial extent in 1683, on the eve of the Battle of Vienna.

From 1699 onwards, the Ottoman Empire began to lose territory over the course of the next two centuries due to internal stagnation, costly defensive wars, European colonialism, and nationalist revolts among its multiethnic subjects. In any case, the need to modernise was evident to the empire's leaders by the early 19th century, and numerous administrative reforms were implemented in an attempt to forestall the decline of the empire, with varying degrees of success. The gradual weakening of the Ottoman Empire gave rise to the Eastern Question in the mid-19th century.

The empire came to an end in the aftermath of its defeat in World War I, when its remaining territory was partitioned by the Allies. The sultanate was officially abolished by the Government of the Turkish Grand National Assembly in Ankara on 1 November 1922 following the Turkish War of Independence. Throughout its more than 600 years of existence, the Ottoman Empire has left a profound legacy in the Middle East and Southeast Europe, as can be seen in the customs, culture, and cuisine of the various countries that were once part of its realm.

Historiographical debate on the Ottoman state

See also: Ghaza thesis

Several historians, such as British historian Edward Gibbon and the Greek historian Dimitri Kitsikis, have argued that after the fall of Constantinople, the Ottoman state took over the machinery of the Byzantine (Roman) state and that the Ottoman Empire was in essence a continuation of the Eastern Roman Empire under a Turkish Muslim guise. The American historian Speros Vryonis writes that the Ottoman state centered on "a Byzantine-Balkan base with a veneer of the Turkish language and the Islamic religion". Kitsikis and the American historian Heath Lowry posit that the early Ottoman state was a predatory confederacy open to both Byzantine Christians and Turkish Muslims whose primary goal was attaining booty and slaves, rather than spreading Islam, and that Islam only later became the empire's primary characteristic. Other historians have followed the lead of the Austrian historian Paul Wittek, who emphasizes the early Ottoman state's Islamic character, seeing it as a "jihad state" dedicated to expanding the Muslim world. Many historians led in 1937 by the Turkish historian Mehmet Fuat Köprülü championed the Ghaza thesis, according to which the early Ottoman state was a continuation of the way of life of the nomadic Turkic tribes who had come from East Asia to Anatolia via Central Asia and the Middle East on a much larger scale. They argued that the most important cultural influences on the Ottoman state came from Persia.

The British historian Norman Stone suggests many continuities between the Eastern Roman and Ottoman empires, such as that the zeugarion tax of Byzantium became the Ottoman Resm-i çift tax, that the pronoia land-holding system that linked the amount of land one owned with one's ability to raise cavalry became the Ottoman timar system, and that the Ottoman land measurement the dönüm was the same as the Byzantine stremma. Stone also argues that although Sunni Islam was the state religion, the Ottoman state supported and controlled the Eastern Orthodox Church, which in return for accepting that control became the Ottoman Empire's largest land-holder. Despite the similarities, Stone argues that a crucial difference is that the land grants under the timar system were not hereditary at first. Even after they became inheritable, land ownership in the Ottoman Empire remained highly insecure, and the sultan revoked land grants whenever he wished. Stone argued this insecurity in land tenure strongly discouraged Timariots from seeking long-term development of their land, and instead led them to adopt a strategy of short-term exploitation, which had deleterious effects on the Ottoman economy.

Government

Main article: State organisation of the Ottoman Empire

Topkapı Palace and Dolmabahçe Palace were the primary residences of the Ottoman sultans in Istanbul between 1465 and 1856 and 1856 to 1922, respectively.

Before the reforms of the 19th and 20th centuries, the state organisation of the Ottoman Empire was a system with two main dimensions, the military administration, and the civil administration. The Sultan was in the highest position in the system. The civil system was based on local administrative units based on the region's characteristics. The state had control over the clergy. Certain pre-Islamic Turkish traditions that had survived the adoption of administrative and legal practices from Islamic Iran remained important in Ottoman administrative circles. According to Ottoman understanding, the state's primary responsibility was to defend and extend the land of the Muslims and to ensure security and harmony within its borders in the overarching context of orthodox Islamic practice and dynastic sovereignty.

The Ottoman Empire, or as a dynastic institution, the House of Osman, was unprecedented and unequaled in the Islamic world for its size and duration. In Europe, only the House of Habsburg had a similarly unbroken line of sovereigns (kings/emperors) from the same family who ruled for so long, and during the same period, between the late 13th and early 20th centuries. The Ottoman dynasty was Turkish in origin. On eleven occasions, the sultan was deposed (replaced by another sultan of the Ottoman dynasty, who were either the former sultan's brother, son or nephew) because he was perceived by his enemies as a threat to the state. There were only two attempts in Ottoman history to unseat the ruling Ottoman dynasty, both failures, which suggests a political system that for an extended period was able to manage its revolutions without unnecessary instability. As such, the last Ottoman sultan Mehmed VI (r. 1918–1922) was a direct patrilineal (male-line) descendant of the first Ottoman sultan Osman I (d. 1323/4), which was unparalleled in both Europe (e.g., the male line of the House of Habsburg became extinct in 1740) and in the Islamic world. The primary purpose of the Imperial Harem was to ensure the birth of male heirs to the Ottoman throne and secure the continuation of the direct patrilineal (male-line) power of the Ottoman sultans in the future generations.

Ambassadors at the Topkapı Palace

The highest position in Islam, caliph, was claimed by the sultans starting with Selim I, which was established as the Ottoman Caliphate. The Ottoman sultan, pâdişâh or "lord of kings", served as the Empire's sole regent and was considered to be the embodiment of its government, though he did not always exercise complete control. The Imperial Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court. It was ruled by the valide sultan. On occasion, the valide sultan became involved in state politics. For a time, the women of the Harem effectively controlled the state in what was termed the "Sultanate of Women". New sultans were always chosen from the sons of the previous sultan. The strong educational system of the palace school was geared towards eliminating the unfit potential heirs and establishing support among the ruling elite for a successor. The palace schools, which also educated the future administrators of the state, were not a single track. First, the Madrasa (Medrese) was designated for the Muslims, and educated scholars and state officials according to Islamic tradition. The financial burden of the Medrese was supported by vakifs, allowing children of poor families to move to higher social levels and income. The second track was a free boarding school for the Christians, the Enderûn, which recruited 3,000 students annually from Christian boys between eight and twenty years old from one in forty families among the communities settled in Rumelia or the Balkans, a process known as Devshirme (Devşirme).

Though the sultan was the supreme monarch, the sultan's political and executive authority was delegated. The politics of the state had a number of advisors and ministers gathered around a council known as Divan. The Divan, in the years when the Ottoman state was still a Beylik, was composed of the elders of the tribe. Its composition was later modified to include military officers and local elites (such as religious and political advisors). Later still, beginning in 1320, a Grand Vizier was appointed to assume certain of the sultan's responsibilities. The Grand Vizier had considerable independence from the sultan with almost unlimited powers of appointment, dismissal, and supervision. Beginning with the late 16th century, sultans withdrew from politics and the Grand Vizier became the de facto head of state.

Yusuf Ziya Pasha, Ottoman ambassador to the United States, in Washington DC, 1913

Throughout Ottoman history, there were many instances in which local governors acted independently, and even in opposition to the ruler. After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy. The sultan no longer had executive powers. A parliament was formed, with representatives chosen from the provinces. The representatives formed the Imperial Government of the Ottoman Empire.

This eclectic administration was apparent even in the diplomatic correspondence of the Empire, which was initially undertaken in the Greek language to the west.

The Tughra were calligraphic monograms, or signatures, of the Ottoman Sultans, of which there were 35. Carved on the Sultan's seal, they bore the names of the Sultan and his father. The statement and prayer, "ever victorious", was also present in most. The earliest belonged to Orhan Gazi. The ornately stylized Tughra spawned a branch of Ottoman-Turkish calligraphy.

Law

Main article: Law of the Ottoman Empire

An unhappy wife complaining to the Qadi about her husband's impotence, as depicted in an Ottoman miniature. Divorce is allowed in Islamic law and can be initiated by either the husband or the wife.

The Ottoman legal system accepted the religious law over its subjects. At the same time the Qanun (or Kanun), dynastic law, co-existed with religious law or Sharia. The Ottoman Empire was always organized around a system of local jurisprudence. Legal administration in the Ottoman Empire was part of a larger scheme of balancing central and local authority. Ottoman power revolved crucially around the administration of the rights to land, which gave a space for the local authority to develop the needs of the local millet. The jurisdictional complexity of the Ottoman Empire was aimed to permit the integration of culturally and religiously different groups. The Ottoman system had three court systems: one for Muslims, one for non-Muslims, involving appointed Jews and Christians ruling over their respective religious communities, and the "trade court". The entire system was regulated from above by means of the administrative Qanun, i.e., laws, a system based upon the Turkic Yassa and Töre, which were developed in the pre-Islamic era.

These court categories were not, however, wholly exclusive; for instance, the Islamic courts, which were the Empire's primary courts, could also be used to settle a trade conflict or disputes between litigants of differing religions, and Jews and Christians often went to them to obtain a more forceful ruling on an issue. The Ottoman state tended not to interfere with non-Muslim religious law systems, despite legally having a voice to do so through local governors. The Islamic Sharia law system had been developed from a combination of the Qur'an; the Hadīth, or words of Muhammad; ijmā', or consensus of the members of the Muslim community; qiyas, a system of analogical reasoning from earlier precedents; and local customs. Both systems were taught at the Empire's law schools, which were in Istanbul and Bursa.

The Ottoman Islamic legal system was set up differently from traditional European courts. Presiding over Islamic courts was a Qadi, or judge. Since the closing of the ijtihad, or 'Gate of Interpretation', Qadis throughout the Ottoman Empire focused less on legal precedent, and more with local customs and traditions in the areas that they administered. However, the Ottoman court system lacked an appellate structure, leading to jurisdictional case strategies where plaintiffs could take their disputes from one court system to another until they achieved a ruling that was in their favour.

An Ottoman trial, 1877

In the late 19th century, the Ottoman legal system saw substantial reform. This process of legal modernisation began with the Edict of Gülhane of 1839. These reforms included the "fair and public trial[s] of all accused regardless of religion", the creation of a system of "separate competences, religious and civil", and the validation of testimony on non-Muslims. Specific land codes (1858), civil codes (1869–1876), and a code of civil procedure also were enacted.

These reforms were based heavily on French models, as indicated by the adoption of a three-tiered court system. Referred to as Nizamiye, this system was extended to the local magistrate level with the final promulgation of the Mecelle, a civil code that regulated marriage, divorce, alimony, will, and other matters of personal status. In an attempt to clarify the division of judicial competences, an administrative council laid down that religious matters were to be handled by religious courts, and statute matters were to be handled by the Nizamiye courts.

Military

Main article: Military of the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman sipahis in battle, holding the crescent banner, by Józef Brandt

The first military unit of the Ottoman State was an army that was organized by Osman I from the tribesmen inhabiting the hills of western Anatolia in the late 13th century. The military system became an intricate organization with the advance of the Empire. The Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief-holding. The main corps of the Ottoman Army included Janissary, Sipahi, Akıncı and Mehterân. The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to use muskets and cannons. The Ottoman Turks began using falconets, which were short but wide cannons, during the Siege of Constantinople. The Ottoman cavalry depended on high speed and mobility rather than heavy armor, using bows and short swords on fast Turkoman and Arabian horses (progenitors of the Thoroughbred racing horse), and often applied tactics similar to those of the Mongol Empire, such as pretending to retreat while surrounding the enemy forces inside a crescent-shaped formation and then making the real attack. The Ottoman army continued to be an effective fighting force throughout the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, falling behind the empire's European rivals only during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768.

Modernised Ertugrul Cavalry Regiment crossing the Galata Bridge in 1901

The modernization of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century started with the military. In 1826 Sultan Mahmud II abolished the Janissary corps and established the modern Ottoman army. He named them as the Nizam-ı Cedid (New Order). The Ottoman army was also the first institution to hire foreign experts and send its officers for training in western European countries. Consequently, the Young Turks movement began when these relatively young and newly trained men returned with their education.

The Ottoman fleet in the Bosphorous near Ortaköy

The Ottoman Navy vastly contributed to the expansion of the Empire's territories on the European continent. It initiated the conquest of North Africa, with the addition of Algeria and Egypt to the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Starting with the loss of Greece in 1821 and Algeria in 1830, Ottoman naval power and control over the Empire's distant overseas territories began to decline. Sultan Abdülaziz (reigned 1861–1876) attempted to reestablish a strong Ottoman navy, building the largest fleet after those of Britain and France. The shipyard at Barrow, England, built its first submarine in 1886 for the Ottoman Empire.

However, the collapsing Ottoman economy could not sustain the fleet's strength for long. Sultan Abdülhamid II distrusted the admirals who sided with the reformist Midhat Pasha and claimed that the large and expensive fleet was of no use against the Russians during the Russo-Turkish War. He locked most of the fleet inside the Golden Horn, where the ships decayed for the next 30 years. Following the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress sought to develop a strong Ottoman naval force. The Ottoman Navy Foundation was established in 1910 to buy new ships through public donations.

Ottoman pilots in early 1912

The establishment of Ottoman military aviation dates back to between June 1909 and July 1911. The Ottoman Empire started preparing its first pilots and planes, and with the founding of the Aviation School (Tayyare Mektebi) in Yeşilköy on 3 July 1912, the Empire began to tutor its own flight officers. The founding of the Aviation School quickened advancement in the military aviation program, increased the number of enlisted persons within it, and gave the new pilots an active role in the Ottoman Army and Navy. In May 1913, the world's first specialized Reconnaissance Training Program was started by the Aviation School, and the first separate reconnaissance division was established. In June 1914 a new military academy, the Naval Aviation School (Bahriye Tayyare Mektebi) was founded. With the outbreak of World War I, the modernization process stopped abruptly. The Ottoman Aviation Squadrons fought on many fronts during World War I, from Galicia in the west to the Caucasus in the east and Yemen in the south.

Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire

Administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire in 1899 (year 1317 Hijri)

The Ottoman Empire was first subdivided into provinces, in the sense of fixed territorial units with governors appointed by the sultan, in the late 14th century.

The Eyalet (also Pashalik or Beylerbeylik) was the territory of office of a Beylerbey ("lord of lords" or governor), and was further subdivided into Sanjaks.

The Vilayets were introduced with the promulgation of the "Vilayet Law" (Teskil-i Vilayet Nizamnamesi) in 1864, as part of the Tanzimat reforms. Unlike the previous eyalet system, the 1864 law established a hierarchy of administrative units: the vilayet, liva/sanjak/mutasarrifate, kaza and village council, to which the 1871 Vilayet Law added the nahiye.

Economy

Main article: Economic history of the Ottoman Empire

Coins of the Sultanate of Rûm and the Ottoman Empire at Aydın Archaeological Museum

Ottoman government deliberately pursued a policy for the development of Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul, successive Ottoman capitals, into major commercial and industrial centers, considering that merchants and artisans were indispensable in creating a new metropolis. To this end, Mehmed and his successor Bayezid, also encouraged and welcomed migration of the Jews from different parts of Europe, who were settled in Istanbul and other port cities like Salonica. In many places in Europe, Jews were suffering persecution at the hands of their Christian counterparts, such as in Spain, after the conclusion of the Reconquista. The tolerance displayed by the Turks was welcomed by the immigrants.

A European bronze medal from the period of Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror, 1481

The Ottoman economic mind was closely related to the basic concepts of state and society in the Middle East in which the ultimate goal of a state was consolidation and extension of the ruler's power, and the way to reach it was to get rich resources of revenues by making the productive classes prosperous. The ultimate aim was to increase the state revenues without damaging the prosperity of subjects to prevent the emergence of social disorder and to keep the traditional organization of the society intact. The Ottoman economy greatly expanded during the early modern period, with particularly high growth rates during the first half of the eighteenth century. The empire's annual income quadrupled between 1523 and 1748, adjusted for inflation.

The organization of the treasury and chancery were developed under the Ottoman Empire more than any other Islamic government and, until the 17th century, they were the leading organization among all their contemporaries. This organisation developed a scribal bureaucracy (known as "men of the pen") as a distinct group, partly highly trained ulama, which developed into a professional body. The effectiveness of this professional financial body stands behind the success of many great Ottoman statesmen.

The Ottoman Bank was founded in 1856 in Constantinople. On 26 August 1896, the bank was occupied by members of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation.

Modern Ottoman studies indicate that the change in relations between the Ottoman Turks and central Europe was caused by the opening of the new sea routes. It is possible to see the decline in the significance of the land routes to the East as Western Europe opened the ocean routes that bypassed the Middle East and the Mediterranean as parallel to the decline of the Ottoman Empire itself. The Anglo-Ottoman Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Balta Liman that opened the Ottoman markets directly to English and French competitors, can be seen as one of the staging posts along with this development.

By developing commercial centers and routes, encouraging people to extend the area of cultivated land in the country and international trade through its dominions, the state performed basic economic functions in the Empire. But in all this, the financial and political interests of the state were dominant. Within the social and political system they were living in, Ottoman administrators could not see the desirability of the dynamics and principles of the capitalist and mercantile economies developing in Western Europe.

Economic historian Paul Bairoch argues that free trade contributed to deindustrialisation in the Ottoman Empire. In contrast to the protectionism of China, Japan, and Spain, the Ottoman Empire had a liberal trade policy, open to foreign imports. This has origins in capitulations of the Ottoman Empire, dating back to the first commercial treaties signed with France in 1536 and taken further with capitulations in 1673 and 1740, which lowered duties to 3% for imports and exports. The liberal Ottoman policies were praised by British economists, such as John Ramsay McCulloch in his Dictionary of Commerce (1834), but later criticized by British politicians such as Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, who cited the Ottoman Empire as "an instance of the injury done by unrestrained competition" in the 1846 Corn Laws debate.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of the Ottoman Empire

Smyrna under Ottoman rule in 1900

A population estimate for the empire of 11,692,480 for the 1520–1535 period was obtained by counting the households in Ottoman tithe registers, and multiplying this number by 5. For unclear reasons, the population in the 18th century was lower than that in the 16th century. An estimate of 7,230,660 for the first census held in 1831 is considered a serious undercount, as this census was meant only to register possible conscripts.

Censuses of Ottoman territories only began in the early 19th century. Figures from 1831 onwards are available as official census results, but the censuses did not cover the whole population. For example, the 1831 census only counted men and did not cover the whole empire. For earlier periods estimates of size and distribution of the population are based on observed demographic patterns.

View of Galata (Karaköy) and the Galata Bridge on the Golden Horn, c. 1880–1893

However, it began to rise to reach 25–32 million by 1800, with around 10 million in the European provinces (primarily in the Balkans), 11 million in the Asiatic provinces, and around 3 million in the African provinces. Population densities were higher in the European provinces, double those in Anatolia, which in turn were triple the population densities of Iraq and Syria and five times the population density of Arabia.

Towards the end of the empire's existence life expectancy was 49 years, compared to the mid-twenties in Serbia at the beginning of the 19th century. Epidemic diseases and famine caused major disruption and demographic changes. In 1785 around one-sixth of the Egyptian population died from the plague and Aleppo saw its population reduced by twenty percent in the 18th century. Six famines hit Egypt alone between 1687 and 1731 and the last famine to hit Anatolia was four decades later.

The rise of port cities saw the clustering of populations caused by the development of steamships and railroads. Urbanization increased from 1700 to 1922, with towns and cities growing. Improvements in health and sanitation made them more attractive to live and work in. Port cities like Salonica, in Greece, saw its population rise from 55,000 in 1800 to 160,000 in 1912 and İzmir which had a population of 150,000 in 1800 grew to 300,000 by 1914. Some regions conversely had population falls—Belgrade saw its population drop from 25,000 to 8,000 mainly due to political strife.

The town of Safranbolu is one of the best preserved Ottoman villages.

Economic and political migrations made an impact across the empire. For example, the Russian and Austria-Habsburg annexation of the Crimean and Balkan regions respectively saw large influxes of Muslim refugees—200,000 Crimean Tartars fleeing to Dobruja. Between 1783 and 1913, approximately 5–7 million refugees arrived into the Ottoman Empire. Between the 1850s and World War I, about a million North Caucasian Muslims arrived in the Ottoman Empire as refugees. Some migrations left indelible marks such as political tension between parts of the empire (e.g., Turkey and Bulgaria), whereas centrifugal effects were noticed in other territories, simpler demographics emerging from diverse populations. Economies were also impacted by the loss of artisans, merchants, manufacturers, and agriculturists. Since the 19th century, a large proportion of Muslim peoples from the Balkans emigrated to present-day Turkey. These people are called Muhacir. By the time the Ottoman Empire came to an end in 1922, half of the urban population of Turkey was descended from Muslim refugees from Russia.

Language

Main article: Languages of the Ottoman Empire

1911 Ottoman calendar shown in several different languages such as: Ottoman Turkish, Greek, Armenian, Hebrew, Bulgarian and French

Ottoman Turkish was the official language of the Empire. It was an Oghuz Turkic language highly influenced by Persian and Arabic, though lower registries spoken by the common people had fewer influences from other languages compared to higher varieties used by upper classes and governmental authorities. Turkish, in its Ottoman variation, was a language of military and administration since the nascent days of the Ottomans. The Ottoman constitution of 1876 did officially cement the official imperial status of Turkish.

The Ottomans had several influential languages: Turkish, spoken by the majority of the people in Anatolia and by the majority of Muslims of the Balkans except some regions such as Albania, Bosnia and the Megleno-Romanian-inhabited Nânti; Persian, only spoken by the educated; Arabic, spoken mainly in Egypt, the Levant, Arabia, Iraq, North Africa, Kuwait and parts of the Horn of Africa and Berber in North Africa. In the last two centuries, usage of these became limited, though, and specific: Persian served mainly as a literary language for the educated, while Arabic was used for Islamic prayers. In the post-Tanzimat period French became the common Western language among the educated.

Because of a low literacy rate among the public (about 2–3% until the early 19th century and just about 15% at the end of the 19th century), ordinary people had to hire scribes as "special request-writers" (arzuhâlcis) to be able to communicate with the government. Some ethnic groups continued to speak within their families and neighborhoods (mahalles) with their own languages, though many non-Muslim minorities such as Greeks and Armenians only spoke Turkish. In villages where two or more populations lived together, the inhabitants often spoke each other's language. In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages; many of those who were not ethnic Turks spoke Turkish as a second language.

Religion

See also: Millet (Ottoman Empire)

Abdülmecid II was the last caliph of Islam and a member of the Ottoman dynasty.

Sunni Islam was the prevailing Dīn (customs, legal traditions, and religion) of the Ottoman Empire; the official Madh'hab (school of Islamic jurisprudence) was Hanafi. From the early 16th century until the early 20th century, the Ottoman sultan also served as the caliph, or politico-religious leader, of the Muslim world. Most of the Ottoman Sultans adhered to Sufism and followed Sufi orders, and believed Sufism was the correct way to reach God.

Non-Muslims, particularly Christians and Jews, were present throughout the empire's history. The Ottoman imperial system was charactised by an intricate combination of official Muslim hegemony over non-Muslims and a wide degree of religious tolerance. While religious minorities were never equal under the law, they were granted recognition, protection, and limited freedoms under both Islamic and Ottoman tradition.

Until the second half of the 15th century, the majority of Ottoman subjects were Christian. Non-Muslims remained a significant and economically influential minority, albeit declining significantly by the 19th century, due largely to migration and secession. The proportion of Muslims amounted to 60% in the 1820s, gradually increasing to 69% in the 1870s and 76% in the 1890s. By 1914, less than a fifth of the empire's population (19.1%) was non-Muslim, mostly made up of Jews and Christian Greeks, Assyrians, and Armenians.

Islam

Main articles: Islam in the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman Caliphate, and Ottoman persecution of Alevis

See also: Islam in Turkey

Turkic peoples practiced a form of shamanism before adopting Islam. The Muslim conquest of Transoxiana under the Abbasids facilitated the spread of Islam into the Turkic heartland of Central Asia. Many Turkic tribes—including the Oghuz Turks, who were the ancestors of both the Seljuks and the Ottomans—gradually converted to Islam and brought religion to Anatolia through their migrations beginning in the 11th century. From its founding, the Ottoman Empire officially supported the Maturidi school of Islamic theology, which emphasized human reason, rationality, the pursuit of science and philosophy (falsafa). The Ottomans were among the earliest and most enthusiastic adopters of the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence, which was comparatively more flexible and discretionary in its rulings.

The Yıldız Hamidiye Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey

The Ottoman Empire had a wide variety of Islamic sects, including Druze, Ismailis, Alevis, and Alawites. Sufism, a diverse body of Islamic mysticism, found fertile ground in Ottoman lands; many Sufi religious orders (tariqa), such as the Bektashi and Mevlevi, were either established, or saw significant growth, throughout the empire's history. However, some heterodox Muslim groups were viewed as heretical and even ranked below Jews and Christians in terms of legal protection; Druze were frequent targets of persecution, with Ottoman authorities often citing the controversial rulings of Ibn Taymiyya, a member of the conservative Hanbali school. In 1514, Sultan Selim I ordered the massacre of 40,000 Anatolian Alevis (Qizilbash), whom he considered a fifth column for the rival Safavid Empire.

During Selim's reign, the Ottoman Empire saw an unprecedented and rapid expansion into the Middle East, particularly the conquest of the entire Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt on the early 16th century. These conquests further solidified the Ottoman claim of being an Islamic caliphate, although Ottoman sultans had been claiming the title of caliph since the reign of Murad I (1362–1389). The caliphate was officially transferred from the Mamluks to the Ottoman sultanate in 1517, whose members were recognized as caliphs until the office's abolition on 3 March 1924 by the Republic of Turkey (and the exile of the last caliph, Abdülmecid II, to France).

Christianity and Judaism

Main articles: Christianity in the Ottoman Empire and History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire

Mehmed the Conqueror and Patriarch Gennadius II

In accordance with the Muslim dhimmi system, the Ottoman Empire guaranteed limited freedoms to Christians, Jews, and other "people of the book", such as the right to worship, own property, and be exempt from the obligatory alms (zakat) required of Muslims. However, non-Muslims (or dhimmi) were subject to various legal restrictions, including being forbidden to carry weapons, ride on horseback, or have their homes overlook those of Muslims; likewise, they were required to pay higher taxes than Muslim subjects, including the jizya, which was a key source of state revenue. Many Christians and Jews converted to Islam to secure full social and legal status, though most continued to practice their faith without restriction.

The Ottomans developed a unique sociopolitical system known as the millet, which granted non-Muslim communities a large degree of political, legal, and religious autonomy; in essence, members of a millet were subjects of the empire but not subject to the Muslim faith or Islamic law. A millet could govern its own affairs, such as raising taxes and resolving internal legal disputes, with little or no interference from Ottoman authorities, so long as its members were loyal to the sultan and adhered to the rules concerning dhimmi. A quintessential example is the ancient Orthodox community of Mount Athos, which was permitted to retain its autonomy and was never subject to occupation or forced conversion; even special laws were enacted to protect it from outsiders.

The Rum Millet, which encompassed most Eastern Orthodox Christians, was governed by the Byzantine-era Corpus Juris Civilis (Code of Justinian), with the Ecumenical Patriarch designated the highest religious and political authority (millet-bashi, or ethnarch). Likewise, Ottoman Jews came under the authority of the Haham Başı, or Ottoman Chief Rabbi, while Armenians were under the authority of the chief bishop of the Armenian Apostolic Church. As the largest group of non-Muslim subjects, the Rum Millet enjoyed several special privileges in politics and commerce; however, Jews and Armenians were also well represented among the wealthy merchant class, as well as in public administration.

Some modern scholars consider the millet system to be an early example of religious pluralism, as it accorded minority religious groups official recognition and tolerance.

Social-political-religious structure

See also: Rayah

Ethnic map of the Ottoman Empire in 1917. Black = Bulgars and Turks, Red = Greeks, Light yellow = Armenians, Blue = Kurds, Orange = Lazes, Dark Yellow = Arabs, Green = Nestorians

Beginning in the early 19th century, society, government, and religion were interrelated in a complex, overlapping way that was deemed inefficient by Atatürk, who systematically dismantled it after 1922. In Constantinople, the Sultan ruled two distinct domains: the secular government and the religious hierarchy. Religious officials formed the Ulama, who had control of religious teachings and theology, and also the Empire's judicial system, giving them a major voice in day-to-day affairs in communities across the Empire (but not including the non-Muslim millets). They were powerful enough to reject the military reforms proposed by Sultan Selim III. His successor Sultan Mahmud II (r. 1808–1839) first won ulama approval before proposing similar reforms. The secularisation program brought by Atatürk ended the ulema and their institutions. The caliphate was abolished, madrasas were closed down, and the sharia courts were abolished. He replaced the Arabic alphabet with Latin letters, ended the religious school system, and gave women some political rights. Many rural traditionalists never accepted this secularisation, and by the 1990s they were reasserting a demand for a larger role for Islam.

The original Church of St. Anthony of Padua, Istanbul was built in 1725 by the local Italian community of Istanbul.

The Janissaries were a highly formidable military unit in the early years, but as Western Europe modernized its military organization technology, the Janissaries became a reactionary force that resisted all change. Steadily the Ottoman military power became outdated, but when the Janissaries felt their privileges were being threatened, or outsiders wanted to modernize them, or they might be superseded by the cavalrymen, they rose in rebellion. The rebellions were highly violent on both sides, but by the time the Janissaries were suppressed, it was far too late for Ottoman military power to catch up with the West. The political system was transformed by the destruction of the Janissaries, a powerful military/governmental/police force, which revolted in the Auspicious Incident of 1826. Sultan Mahmud II crushed the revolt executed the leaders and disbanded the large organization. That set the stage for a slow process of modernization of government functions, as the government sought, with mixed success, to adopt the main elements of Western bureaucracy and military technology.

Янычары были набраны из христиан и других меньшинств; их отмена позволила появиться турецкой элите, контролирующей Османскую империю. К большому количеству этнических и религиозных меньшинств допускались в их отдельных сегрегированных владениях, называемых миллетами. They were primarily Greek, Armenian, or Jewish. In each locality, they governed themselves, spoke their own language, ran their own schools, cultural and religious institutions, and paid somewhat higher taxes. They had no power outside the millet. The Imperial government protected them and prevented major violent clashes between ethnic groups.

Этнический национализм, основанный на особой религии и языке, стал центростремительной силой, которая в конечном итоге разрушила Османскую империю. Кроме того, мусульманские этнические группы, не входившие в систему проса, особенно арабы и курды, оказались вне турецкой культуры и развили свой собственный отдельный национализм. Британцы спонсировали арабский национализм во время Первой мировой войны, обещая независимое арабское государство в обмен на арабскую поддержку. Большинство арабов поддержали султана, но жители Мекки поверили и поддержали британское обещание.

Синагога Хемдат Исраэль в Стамбуле

На местном уровне власть находилась вне контроля султана со стороны аянов или местной знати. Аян собирал налоги, формировал местные армии, чтобы конкурировать с другими знатными людьми, занимал реакционную позицию по отношению к политическим или экономическим изменениям и часто игнорировал политику, проводимую султаном.

После 18 века Османская империя сокращалась, поскольку Россия оказывала сильное давление и расширялась на юг; Египет стал фактически независимым в 1805 году, а позже британцы захватили его вместе с Кипром. Греция стала независимой, а Сербия и другие балканские регионы стали очень беспокойными, поскольку сила национализма выступила против империализма. Французы захватили Алжир и Тунис. Все европейцы думали, что империя — это больной человек, находящийся в быстром упадке. Только немцы казались полезными, и их поддержка привела к тому, что Османская империя присоединилась к центральным державам в 1915 году, в результате чего они оказались одними из самых проигравших в Первой мировой войне в 1918 году.

Культура

Основная статья: Культура Османской империи

Изображение кальянной в Ливане.

Османы впитали некоторые традиции, искусство и культурные институты завоеванных ими регионов и добавили к ним новые измерения. Многочисленные традиции и культурные черты предыдущих империй (в таких областях, как архитектура, кухня, музыка, досуг и управление) были переняты турками-османами, которые развили их в новые формы, что привело к появлению новой, характерной османской культурной идентичности. Хотя преобладающим литературным языком Османской империи был турецкий, персидский язык был предпочтительным средством проецирования имперского образа.

Рабство было частью османского общества. при этом большинство рабов работали в качестве домашней прислуги. Сельскохозяйственное рабство, подобное рабству в Америке, было относительно редким. В отличие от систем движимого рабства , рабы по исламскому праву не считались движимым имуществом, а дети рабынь рождались юридически свободными. Рабыни все еще продавались в Империи даже в 1908 году. В 19 веке Империя подверглась давлению со стороны стран Западной Европы с требованием объявить эту практику вне закона. Политика, разработанная различными султанами на протяжении 19 века, была направлена ​​​​на ограничение османской работорговли , но рабство имело столетия религиозной поддержки и санкций и поэтому так и не было отменено в Империи.

Чума оставалась главным бедствием османского общества до второй четверти XIX века. «Между 1701 по 1750 год в Стамбуле было зарегистрировано 37 крупных и мелких эпидемий чумы, а между 1751 и 1801 годами — 31».

Османы переняли персидские бюрократические традиции и культуру. Султаны также внесли важный вклад в развитие персидской литературы.

Язык не был очевидным признаком групповой связи и идентичности в 16 веке среди правителей Османской империи, Сефевидского Ирана и Абуль-Хайрида Шибанидов Центральной Азии . Следовательно, правящие классы всех трех государств были двуязычными, на персидском и тюркском языках. Но в последней четверти века в османском и сефевидском царствах произошли лингвистические изменения, определяемые новой жесткостью, отдававшей предпочтение османскому турецкому и персидскому языкам соответственно.

Образование

Основная статья: Образование в Османской империи

Государственная библиотека Беязыт была основана в 1884 году.

В Османской империи каждое просо создало школьную систему, обслуживающую своих членов. Таким образом, образование было в значительной степени разделено по этническому и религиозному признаку: лишь немногие немусульмане посещали школы для учащихся-мусульман, и наоборот. Большинство учреждений, обслуживающих все этнические и религиозные группы, преподают на французском или других языках.

Несколько «иностранных школ» ( Frerler mektebleri ), которыми руководило религиозное духовенство, в основном обслуживали христиан, хотя их посещали и некоторые студенты-мусульмане. Гарнетт описал школы для христиан и евреев как «организованные по европейским моделям», с «добровольными пожертвованиями», поддерживающими их работу, и большинство из них «хорошо посещаемыми» и с «высоким уровнем образования».

Литература

Основная статья: Османская литература

Двумя основными направлениями османской письменной литературы являются поэзия и проза . Поэзия была безусловно доминирующим направлением. Самый ранний труд османской историографии, например, « Искендернаме» , был написан поэтом Таджеддином Ахмеди (1334–1413). До XIX века османская проза не содержала образцов художественной литературы: не было аналогов, например, европейскому роману , рассказу или роману. Однако аналоговые жанры существовали как в турецкой народной литературе , так и в поэзии Дивана .

Поэзия Османского дивана была весьма ритуализированной и символической формой искусства. От персидской поэзии , которая во многом ее вдохновила, она унаследовала множество символов, значения и взаимоотношения которых — как подобия ( مراعات نظير mura'ât-i nazîr / تناسب tenasub ), так и оппозиции ( تضاد tezâd ) были более или менее предписаны. Поэзия Дивана создавалась путем постоянного сопоставления множества таких образов в строгих метрических рамках, что позволяло проявиться многочисленным потенциальным значениям. Подавляющее большинство диванской поэзии носило лирический характер: либо газели (составляющие большую часть репертуара традиции), либо касиды. Но были и другие общие жанры, особенно месневи, своего рода стихотворный роман и, следовательно, разновидность повествовательной поэзии ; Двумя наиболее известными примерами этой формы являются Лейли и Меджнун и Физули Хусн ю Ашк Шейха Галиба . « Сеяхатнаме » Эвлии Челеби (1611–1682) представляет собой выдающийся образец литературы о путешествиях.

Ахмет Недим Эфенди , один из самых знаменитых османских поэтов.

До XIX века османская проза не развивалась в такой степени, как современная поэзия Дивана. Во многом причина заключалась в том, что большая часть прозы должна была соответствовать правилам сек ( سجع , также транслитерируется как секи ), или рифмованной прозы . тип письменности, произошедший от арабского саджа, который предписывал, чтобы между каждым прилагательным и существительным в цепочке слов, например в предложении, должна была быть рифма. Тем не менее, в литературе того времени существовала традиция прозы, правда, исключительно документальной. Одним очевидным исключением был Muhayyelât ( «Фантазии ») Гиритли Али Азиза Эфенди , сборник фантастических рассказов, написанный в 1796 году, но не опубликованный до 1867 года. Первым романом, опубликованным в Османской империи, была Вартана-паши 1851 года «История Акаби» (1851 год). Турецкий: Акаби Хикьяеси ). Оно было написано на турецком языке, но армянской вязью.

Из-за исторически тесных связей с Францией французская литература оказала основное влияние Запада на османскую литературу во второй половине XIX века. В результате многие из движений, преобладавших во Франции в тот период, имели османские эквиваленты; например, в развивающейся османской прозаической традиции можно увидеть влияние романтизма в период Танзимата, а также влияние движений реалистов и натуралистов в последующие периоды; в поэтической традиции, напротив, первостепенное значение имело влияние символистского и парнасского движений .

Многие писатели периода Танзимата писали одновременно в нескольких разных жанрах; например, поэт Намик Кемаль также написал важный роман 1876 года «Интибах» ( «Пробуждение» ), а журналист Ибрагим Шинаси известен тем, что в 1860 году написал первую современную турецкую пьесу, одноактную комедию «Шаир Эвленмеси» ( «Женитьба поэта» ). Более ранняя пьеса, фарс под названием «Вакаяи'-и'Ачибе ве Хавадис-и Гарибе-йи Кефшгер Ахмед » ( «Странные события и причудливые происшествия сапожника Ахмеда» ), датируется началом XIX века, но ее достоверность вызывает сомнения. подлинность. В том же духе писатель Ахмед Мидхат Эфенди написал важные романы в каждом из основных направлений: романтизм ( Хасан Меллах йахуд Сирр Ичинде Эсрар , 1873; Хасан-мореход, или Тайна внутри тайны ), реализм ( Хенюз о Йеди Яшинда , 1881; «Всего семнадцать лет» ) и «Натурализм» ( «Мюшахедат» , 1891; «Наблюдения» ). Частично такое разнообразие объяснялось желанием писателей Танзимата распространять как можно больше новой литературы в надежде, что это будет способствовать возрождению Османской империи. социальные структуры .

СМИ

Основная статья: СМИ Османской империи

Средства массовой информации Османской империи были разнообразными: газеты и журналы издавались на языках, включая французский , Греческий , и немецкий . Многие из этих публикаций были сосредоточены в Константинополе . но были также газеты на французском языке, выпускавшиеся в Бейруте , Салониках и Смирне . Немусульманские этнические меньшинства в империи использовали французский язык в качестве лингва-франка и использовали публикации на французском языке. в то время как некоторые провинциальные газеты издавались на арабском языке . Использование французского языка в средствах массовой информации сохранялось до конца империи в 1923 году и в течение нескольких лет после этого в Турецкой Республике .

Архитектура

Основная статья: Османская архитектура

Мечеть Сулеймание в Стамбуле, спроектированная Мимаром Синаном в 16 веке и являющаяся ярким примером классического османского стиля.

Голубая мечеть в Стамбуле — образец классического стиля османской архитектуры с византийским влиянием.

Архитектура империи развивалась на основе более ранней турецкой архитектуры Сельджуков с влиянием византийской и иранской архитектуры и других архитектурных традиций Ближнего Востока. Ранняя османская архитектура экспериментировала с несколькими типами зданий на протяжении 13-15 веков, постепенно превращаясь в классический османский стиль 16-17 веков, на который также сильно повлиял собор Святой Софии . Самым важным архитектором классического периода является Мимар Синан , чьи основные работы включают мечеть Шехзаде , мечеть Сулеймание и мечеть Селимие . Величайшие из придворных художников обогатили Османскую империю множеством плюралистических художественных влияний, таких как смешение традиционного византийского искусства с элементами китайского искусства . Во второй половине 16-го века также наблюдался апогей некоторых декоративных искусств, особенно в использовании изникских плиток .

Начиная с 18 века, османская архитектура находилась под влиянием архитектуры барокко Западной Европы, в результате чего возник стиль османского барокко . Мечеть Нуруосмание является одним из наиболее важных примеров этого периода. В последний османский период наблюдалось большее влияние Западной Европы, привнесенное архитекторами, например, из семьи Бальян . Были введены стиль ампир и неоклассические мотивы, а тенденция к эклектике была очевидна во многих типах зданий, таких как дворец Долмабаче . В последние десятилетия существования Османской империи также возник новый архитектурный стиль, называемый неоосманским или османским возрождением, также известный как Первое национальное архитектурное движение . такими архитекторами, как Мимар Кемаледдин и Ведат Тек .

Османское династическое покровительство было сосредоточено в исторических столицах Бурсе, Эдирне и Стамбуле (Константинополе), а также в ряде других важных административных центров, таких как Амасья и Маниса . Именно в этих центрах произошли наиболее важные события в османской архитектуре и можно найти самую монументальную османскую архитектуру. Крупные религиозные памятники обычно представляли собой архитектурные комплексы, известные как кюллие , состоящие из нескольких компонентов, предоставляющих различные услуги или удобства. Помимо мечети, это могут быть медресе , хаммам , имарет , себил , рынок, караван-сарай , начальная школа и другие. Эти комплексы управлялись и управлялись с помощью соглашения вакиф (арабский вакф ). Османские постройки все еще были в изобилии в Анатолии и на Балканах (Румелия), но в более отдаленных провинциях Ближнего Востока и Северной Африки старые исламские архитектурные стили продолжали оказывать сильное влияние и иногда смешивались с османскими стилями.

Декоративное искусство

Дополнительная информация: Османская иллюминация и Османская миниатюра.

Османская миниатюра потеряла свою функцию с вестернизацией османской культуры.

Традиция османских миниатюр , нарисованных для иллюстрации рукописей или использованных в специальных альбомах, находилась под сильным влиянием персидской формы искусства, хотя она также включала элементы византийской традиции освещения и живописи. Греческая академия художников Наккашейн-и-Рум была основана во дворце Топкапы в 15 веке, а в начале следующего столетия к ней была добавлена ​​аналогичная персидская академия Наккашейн-и-Ирани . «Фамилия-и Хумаюн» («Императорские праздничные книги») представляли собой альбомы, посвященные праздникам Османской империи в графических и текстовых деталях.

Османское освещение охватывает нефигуративное нарисованное или нарисованное декоративное искусство в книгах или на листах в муракке или альбомах, в отличие от фигуративных изображений османской миниатюры . Оно было частью османского книжного искусства вместе с османской миниатюрой ( тасвир ), каллиграфией ( шляпа ), исламской каллиграфией , переплетным делом ( кильт ) и мраморированием бумаги ( эбру ). В Османской империи иллюстрированные и иллюстрированные рукописи заказывали султан или придворные администраторы. Во дворце Топкапы эти рукописи были созданы художниками, работавшими в Наккашане , ателье художников миниатюры и иллюминации. Иллюминировать могли как религиозные, так и нерелигиозные книги. Также листы для альбомов левха состояли из световой каллиграфии ( шапки ) тугры , религиозных текстов, стихов из стихов или пословиц и чисто декоративных рисунков.

Искусство ковроткачества имело особое значение в Османской империи, ковры имели огромное значение как как декоративная мебель, богатая религиозной и другой символикой, так и как практическое соображение, поскольку в жилых помещениях было принято снимать обувь. Ткачество таких ковров зародилось в кочевых культурах Центральной Азии (ковры представляли собой легко транспортируемый вид мебели) и со временем распространилось на оседлые общества Анатолии. Ковры, коврики и килимы турки использовали не только для пола в комнате, но и для подвешивания на стены и дверные проемы, где они обеспечивали дополнительную изоляцию. Их также обычно дарили мечетям, которые часто собирали их большие коллекции.

Музыка и исполнительское искусство

Дополнительная информация: Османская музыка.

Музыканты и танцоры, развлекающие толпу, из фамилии-и Хюмаюн , 1720 г.

Османская классическая музыка была важной частью образования османской элиты. Ряд османских султанов сами были выдающимися музыкантами и композиторами, например, Селим III , чьи произведения часто исполняются и сегодня. Османская классическая музыка возникла в основном в результате слияния византийской музыки , армянской музыки , арабской музыки и персидской музыки . Композиционно он организован вокруг ритмических единиц, называемых усул , которые чем-то похожи на размер в западной музыке, и мелодических единиц, называемых макам , которые имеют некоторое сходство с западными музыкальными ладами .

Используемые инструменты уд представляют собой смесь анатолийских и среднеазиатских инструментов ( саз , баглама , кеменс ), других ближневосточных инструментов ( , танбур , канун , ней ) и — более поздних по традиции — западных инструментов. (скрипка и фортепиано). Из-за географического и культурного разделения между столицей и другими регионами в Османской империи возникли два совершенно разных стиля музыки: османская классическая музыка и народная музыка. В провинции несколько различных видов народной музыки было создано . Наиболее доминирующими регионами с их выдающимися музыкальными стилями являются балкано-фракийские тюркусы, северо-восточные ( лазы ) тюркусы, эгейские тюркусы, центральноанатолийские тюркусы, восточноанатолийские тюркусы и кавказские тюркусы. Некоторые из отличительных стилей были: янычарская музыка , цыганская музыка , танец живота , турецкая народная музыка .

Традиционная пьеса теней под названием Карагез и Хачиват была широко распространена по всей Османской империи, и в ней участвовали персонажи, представляющие все основные этнические и социальные группы этой культуры. Его исполнял один кукловод, озвучивающий всех персонажей, под аккомпанемент бубна ( деф ). Его происхождение неясно, возможно, оно происходит из более древней египетской традиции или, возможно, из азиатского источника.

• 
  Миниатюра из «Фамилии-и Вехби», изображающая Мехтеран , музыкальный оркестр янычар .
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  Игра теней Карагез и Хачиват была широко распространена по всей Османской империи.
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  Музыкальное собрание XVIII века.
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  Акробатика в Фамилии-и Хумаюн

Кухня

Основная статья: Османская кухня

Турецкие женщины пекут хлеб, 1790 год.

Османская кухня — это кухня столицы Константинополя ( Стамбула ) и региональных столиц, где смешение культур создало общую кухню, которую разделяло большинство населения, независимо от этнической принадлежности. Эта разнообразная кухня была отточена на кухнях Императорского дворца поварами, приехавшими из определенных частей Империи, чтобы создавать и экспериментировать с различными ингредиентами. Изделия кухонь Османского дворца дошли до населения, например, через Рамадана и через приготовление пищи в Ялы Пашах мероприятия , а затем распространились на остальную часть населения.

Большая часть кухни бывших османских территорий сегодня произошла от общей османской кухни, особенно турецкой , включая греческую , балканскую , армянскую и ближневосточную кухни. Многие распространенные в регионе блюда, потомки некогда распространенной османской кухни, включают йогурт , донер-кебаб / гиро / шаурму , чачик /цацики, айран , фета лаваш , сыр , пахлаву , лахмакун , мусаку , круглую , кёфте /кефтес/ кофта, бёрек /буреки, ракы / ракия / ципуро / цикудия , мезе , долма , сарма , рисовый плов , турецкий кофе , суджук , кашк , кешкек , манты , лаваш , канафе и многое другое.

Спорт

Члены Бешикташа JK в 1903 году

Основными видами спорта, которыми занимались османы, были турецкая борьба , охота, турецкая стрельба из лука , верховая езда, конное метание копья , армрестлинг и плавание. Европейские модельные спортивные клубы были созданы с ростом популярности футбольных матчей в Константинополе XIX века. Ведущими клубами, согласно хронологии, были гимнастический клуб Бешикташ (1903 г.), спортивный клуб Галатасарай (1905 г.), спортивный клуб Фенербахче (1907 г.), MKE Ankaragücü (бывший Turan Sanatkarangücü) (1910 г.) в Константинополе. Футбольные клубы были созданы и в других провинциях, таких как спортивный клуб «Каршияка» (1912 г.), спортивный клуб «Алтай» (1914 г.) и футбольный клуб «Турецкое Отечество» (позже «Юлкуспор ») (1914 г.) в Измире .

Наука и технологии

Основная статья: Наука и технологии в Османской империи

Константинопольская обсерватория Таки ад-Дина в 1577 году.

На протяжении всей истории Османской империи османам удалось создать большую коллекцию библиотек, наполненную переводами книг других культур, а также оригинальными рукописями. Большая часть этого стремления к местным и зарубежным рукописям возникла в 15 веке. Султан Мехмет II приказал Георгиосу Амируцесу , греческому ученому из Трабзона , перевести и предоставить османским учебным заведениям книгу по географии Птолемея . Другой пример – Али Кушджи – астроном , математик и физик родом из Самарканда – который стал профессором в двух медресе и оказал влияние на османские круги благодаря своим трудам и деятельности своих учеников, хотя он провел в ней всего два или три года. Константинополь перед смертью.

Таки ад-Дин построил Константинопольскую обсерваторию Таки ад-Дина в 1577 году, где проводил наблюдения до 1580 года. Он рассчитал эксцентриситет орбиты Солнца и годовое движение апогея . Однако основная цель обсерватории почти наверняка была астрологической, а не астрономической, что привело к ее разрушению в 1580 году из-за возникновения фракции духовенства, которая выступала против ее использования для этой цели. Он также экспериментировал с паровой энергией в Османском Египте в 1551 году, когда описал паровой домкрат, приводимый в движение элементарной паровой турбиной .

Девушка, читающая Коран ( Куран Окуян Кыз ), картина 1880 года османского эрудита Османа Хамди-бея , в работах которого часто изображались женщины, занимающиеся образовательной деятельностью.

В 1660 году османский ученый Ибрагим Эфенди аль-Зигетвари Тезкиречи перевел Ноэля Дюре (написанную в 1637 году) на арабский язык. французскую астрономическую работу

Шерафеддин Сабунджоглу был автором первого хирургического атласа и последней крупной медицинской энциклопедии исламского мира . Хотя его работа во многом была основана на Абу аль-Касима аз-Захрави , «Ат-Тасрифе» Сабунджоглу внес много собственных новшеств. Впервые были проиллюстрированы женщины-хирурги. С тех пор Османской империи приписывают изобретение нескольких используемых хирургических инструментов, таких как щипцы , катетеры , скальпели и ланцеты , а также щипцы .

Пример часов, измеряющих время в минутах, был создан османским часовщиком Мешуром Шейхом Деде в 1702 году.

В начале 19 века Египет при Мухаммеде Али начал использовать паровые двигатели для промышленного производства, при этом такие отрасли, как металлургические заводы , текстильное производство , бумажные фабрики и шелушильные заводы, перешли на паровую энергию. Историк экономики Жан Бату утверждает, что в Египте существовали необходимые экономические условия для использования нефти в качестве потенциального источника энергии для паровых двигателей в конце 19 века.

В 19 веке Исхаку Эфенди приписывают внедрение современных западных научных идей и разработок в Османский и более широкий мусульманский мир, а также изобретение подходящей турецкой и арабской научной терминологии посредством его переводов западных работ.

См. также

• 16 великих тюркских империй
• Библиография Османской империи
• Империя султанов
• Пороховые империи
• Историография Османской империи
• Очертание Османской империи
• Список сражений с участием Османской империи
• Список иностранцев, состоявших на службе Османской империи
• Список османских завоеваний, осад и высадок
• Список войн с участием Османской империи
• Османские войны в Европе
• Очертание Османской империи
• Тюркская история

Ссылки

Источники

• Атасой, Нурхан; Раби, Джулиан (1989). Петсопулос, Янни (ред.). Изник: Керамика Османской Турции . Александрия Пресс. ISBN  978-0-500-97374-5 .
• Блэр, Шейла С.; Блум, Джонатан М. (1995). Искусство и архитектура ислама 1250-1800 гг . Издательство Йельского университета. ISBN  978-0-300-06465-0 . Архивировано из оригинала 14 января 2023 года . Проверено 9 марта 2022 г.
• Свободно, Джон (2011). История османской архитектуры . ВИТ Пресс. ISBN  978-1-84564-506-9 . Архивировано из оригинала 14 января 2023 года . Проверено 9 марта 2022 г.
• Ицковиц, Норман (1980). Османская империя и исламская традиция . ISBN  978-0-226-38806-9 .
• Кинросс, Лорд (1979). Османские столетия: взлет и падение Турецкой империи . Харпер Коллинз. ISBN  978-0-688-08093-8 . популярная история поддерживает старый тезис о «упадке»
• Кубань, Доган (2010). Османская архитектура . Перевод Милля, Адэра. Клуб коллекционеров антиквариата. ISBN  978-1-85149-604-4 .
• Куатаерт, Дональд (1983). Социальный распад и народное сопротивление в Османской империи 1881–1908 гг .
• Куатэрт, Дональд ; Спайви, Дайан М. (2000). Исследования потребления и история Османской империи, 1550–1922 гг . СУНИ Пресс. ISBN  978-0-7914-4431-3 .
• Роган, Юджин (2011). Арабы: История . Пингвин. ISBN  978-0-465-03248-8 . Архивировано из оригинала 14 января 2023 года . Проверено 9 сентября 2021 г.
• Хамед-Троянский, Владимир (2024). Империя беженцев: мусульмане Северного Кавказа и позднеосманское государство . Стэнфорд, Калифорния: Издательство Стэнфордского университета. ISBN  978-1-5036-3696-5 . Архивировано из оригинала 21 мая 2024 года . Проверено 20 мая 2024 г.

Дальнейшее чтение

Более полный список см. в «Библиографии Османской империи» .

Внешние ссылки

• Проект архива османских текстов. Архивировано 19 мая 2024 г. в Wayback Machine.
• Ресурсы по османским и турецким исследованиям - Мичиганский университет
• Историки Османской империи – Чикагский университет
• Турция в Азии , 1920 год.