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Холодная война
12 марта 1947 г. - 26 декабря 1991 г. [А]
(44 года и 9 месяцев)
Часть эпохи после Второй мировой войны.
  НАТО и   Государства Варшавского договора в эпоху холодной войны

Холодная война — период геополитической напряженности между Соединенными Штатами и Советским Союзом и их соответствующими союзниками, Западным и Восточным блоками , который начался в 1947 году, через два года после окончания Второй мировой войны , и продолжался до осени. Советского Союза в 1991 году.

Термин « холодная война» не было крупномасштабных боевых действий используется потому, что непосредственно между двумя сверхдержавами , но каждая из них поддерживала противоборствующие стороны в крупных региональных конфликтах, известных как прокси-войны .

Холодная война была основана на идеологической и геополитической борьбе за глобальное влияние этих двух сверхдержав, следуя их роли союзников во Второй мировой войне , которая привела к победе над нацистской Германией и императорской Японией в 1945 году. [2] Помимо гонки ядерных вооружений и обычного военного развертывания , борьба за доминирование выражалась косвенно, например, в психологической войне , пропагандистских кампаниях , шпионаже , далеко идущих эмбарго , спортивной дипломатии и технологических соревнованиях, таких как космическая гонка . Холодная война началась с провозглашения доктрины Трумэна в 1947 году, начала постепенное затухание с советско-китайским расколом между Советским Союзом и Китайской Народной Республикой в ​​1961 году и закончилась распадом Советского Союза в 1991 году.

Западный блок возглавляли Соединенные Штаты, а также ряд стран первого мира , которые в целом были капиталистическими и либерально-демократическими , но были связаны с сетью часто авторитарных государств третьего мира , большинство из которых были бывшими колониями европейских держав . [3] [Б] Восточный блок возглавляли Советский Союз и его коммунистическая партия , которая имела влияние во втором мире , а также была связана с сетью авторитарных государств. Советский Союз имел командную экономику и установил аналогичные коммунистические режимы в своих государствах-сателлитах . Участие Соединенных Штатов в смене режима во время холодной войны включало поддержку антикоммунистических и правых диктатур , правительств и восстаний по всему миру, в то время как участие СССР в смене режима включало финансирование левых партий , войн за независимость , революций. и диктатуры по всему миру. Поскольку почти все колониальные государства прошли деколонизацию и получили независимость в период с 1945 по 1960 год, многие из них стали полем битвы третьего мира в холодной войне.

Происхождение термина

В конце Второй мировой войны английский писатель Джордж Оруэлл использовал холодную войну как общий термин в своем эссе «Вы и атомная бомба», опубликованном 19 октября 1945 года в британской газете Tribune . Размышляя о мире, живущем в тени угрозы ядерной войны , Оруэлл посмотрел на предсказания Джеймса Бёрнема о поляризованном мире, написав:

Глядя на мир в целом, можно увидеть, что на протяжении многих десятилетий дрейф шел не к анархии, а к восстановлению рабства... Теория Джеймса Бернэма много обсуждалась, но мало кто еще задумывался о ее идеологических последствиях - то есть о том, какого рода мировоззрения, верований и социальной структуры, которые, вероятно, будут преобладать в государстве, одновременно непобедимом и находящемся в постоянном состоянии «холодной войны» со своими соседями. [4]

В «Обсервере» от 10 марта 1946 года Оруэлл писал: «После московской конференции в декабре прошлого года Россия начала «холодную войну» с Великобританией и Британской империей». [5]

Первое использование этого термина для описания конкретной послевоенной геополитической конфронтации между Советским Союзом и Соединенными Штатами произошло в речи Бернарда Баруха , влиятельного советника президентов-демократов. [6] 16 апреля 1947 года. Речь, написанная журналистом Гербертом Баярдом Своупом , [7] провозгласил: «Давайте не будем обманываться: сегодня мы находимся в разгаре холодной войны». [8] Газетный обозреватель Уолтер Липпманн ввел этот термин в широкое распространение в своей книге «Холодная война» . Когда в 1947 году его спросили об источнике этого термина, Липпманн связал его с французским термином 1930-х годов « la guerre froide ». [С]

Фазы

Первая фаза «холодной войны» началась вскоре после окончания Второй мировой войны в 1945 году. Соединенные Штаты и их западноевропейские союзники стремились укрепить свои связи и использовали политику сдерживания против советского влияния; они достигли этого, прежде всего, посредством создания НАТО , которое, по сути, было оборонительным соглашением в 1949 году. Советский Союз ответил на это Варшавским договором в 1955 году, который имел аналогичные результаты с Восточным блоком. Поскольку к тому времени Советский Союз уже имел вооруженное присутствие и политическое господство во всех своих восточных государствах-сателлитах, пакт долгое время считался излишним. [9] [10] Хотя номинально Варшавский договор представлял собой оборонительный союз, его основная функция заключалась в защите советской гегемонии над его восточноевропейскими сателлитами, при этом единственными прямыми военными действиями пакта были вторжения в его собственные государства-члены, чтобы удержать их от отделения; [11] В 1960-х годах пакт превратился в многосторонний альянс, в котором несоветские члены Варшавского договора получили значительные возможности для реализации своих собственных интересов. В 1961 году союзная Советскому Союзу Восточная Германия построила Берлинскую стену , чтобы помешать гражданам Восточного Берлина бежать в Западный Берлин , который в то время был частью союзной США Западной Германии . [12] Крупнейшие кризисы этого этапа включали блокаду Берлина 1948–1949 годов, Коммунистическую революцию в Китае 1945–1949 годов, Корейскую войну 1950–1953 годов, Венгерскую революцию 1956 года и Суэцкий кризис того же года, Берлинский кризис 1961 года. Кубинский ракетный кризис 1962 года и война во Вьетнаме 1964–1975 годов. Обе сверхдержавы боролись за влияние в Латинской Америке и на Ближнем Востоке , а также за деколонизирующиеся государства Африки , Азии и Океании .

После кубинского ракетного кризиса на четвертой фазе «холодной войны» произошел советско-китайский раскол . Сложные отношения между Китаем и Советским Союзом в коммунистической сфере привели к китайско-советскому пограничному конфликту , в то время как Франция, государство Западного блока, начала требовать большей автономии действий. Вторжение Варшавского договора в Чехословакию произошло для подавления Пражской весны 1968 года, в то время как Соединенные Штаты переживали внутренние беспорядки из-за движения за гражданские права и противодействия участию Соединенных Штатов во Вьетнамской войне . В 1960–1970-е годы международное движение за мир укоренилось среди граждан всего мира. движения против испытаний ядерного оружия и за ядерное разоружение Имели место , сопровождавшиеся крупными антивоенными протестами. К 1970-м годам обе стороны начали делать скидку на мир и безопасность, положив начало периоду разрядки , в ходе которого прошли переговоры об ограничении стратегических вооружений и визит Ричарда Никсона в Китай в 1972 году , который открыл отношения с Китаем как стратегическим противовесом Советскому Союзу. . Ряд самопровозглашенных Марксистско-ленинские правительства были сформированы во второй половине 1970-х годов в развивающихся странах , включая Анголу , Мозамбик , Эфиопию , Камбоджу , Афганистан и Никарагуа .

Разрядка рухнула в конце десятилетия с началом советско-афганской войны в 1979 году. Начиная с 1980-х годов, пятая фаза «холодной войны» стала еще одним периодом повышенной напряженности. Доктрина Рейгана привела к усилению дипломатического, военного и экономического давления на Советский Союз, который в то время переживал эпоху застоя . На шестом этапе «холодной войны» новый советский лидер Михаил Горбачев провел либерализирующие реформы гласности («открытости», около 1985 г.) и перестройки («реорганизация», около 1987 г.) и положил конец советскому вмешательству в Афганистане в 1989 году. Давление поскольку национальный суверенитет в Восточной Европе укрепился, а Горбачев отказался и дальше оказывать военную поддержку коммунистическим правительствам.

Падение « железного занавеса» после Панъевропейского пикника и революций 1989 года , представлявших собой мирную революционную волну, за исключением румынской революции и гражданской войны в Афганистане (1989–1992) , свергло почти всю марксистско-ленинскую идеологию. режимы Восточного блока. Сама Коммунистическая партия Советского Союза потеряла контроль над страной и была запрещена после попытки советского государственного переворота в августе 1991 года. Это, в свою очередь, привело к формальному распаду Советского Союза в декабре 1991 года и краху коммунистических правительств на большей части Африки и Азии. Российская Федерация стала государством-правопреемником Советского Союза, в то время как многие другие республики возникли после распада Советского Союза как полностью независимые постсоветские государства . [13] Соединенные Штаты остались единственной сверхдержавой в мире.

Холодная война оставила значительное наследие. Его последствия включают ссылки на культуру во время войны , особенно на темы шпионажа и угрозы ядерной войны . За холодной войной обычно следует классификация международных отношений с 1989 года и эпохи после холодной войны, чтобы подчеркнуть ее влияние.

Фон

Русская революция

союзников Войска во Владивостоке , август 1918 года, во время интервенции союзников в Гражданскую войну в России.

Хотя большинство историков относят истоки «холодной войны» к периоду сразу после Второй мировой войны, некоторые утверждают, что она началась с Октябрьской революции 1917 года в Российской Республике , когда большевики свергли Временное правительство России . В Первой мировой войне Британская, Французская и Российская империи с самого начала составляли основные союзные державы , а в апреле 1917 года к ним присоединились США в качестве самопровозглашенной объединенной державы. После захвата власти большевиками начался кровавый красный террор. была инициирована с целью подавить всю оппозицию, как мнимую, так и реальную. [14] В декабре большевики подписали перемирие с Центральными державами , хотя к февралю 1918 года боевые действия возобновились. В марте Советы прекратили участие в войне и подписали сепаратный мирный Брест-Литовский договор . В результате немецкие армии быстро продвигались через приграничные территории. Союзники ответили экономической блокадой нового российского режима. [15] В глазах некоторых союзников Россия теперь помогала Германии выиграть войну, высвобождая миллион немецких солдат для Западного фронта. [16] и отказавшись от значительной части российских поставок продовольствия, промышленной базы, поставок топлива и коммуникаций с Западной Европой. [17] [18] По словам историка Спенсера Такера , союзники считали: «Этот договор был окончательным предательством дела союзников и посеял семена холодной войны. После Брест-Литовска призрак немецкого доминирования в Восточной Европе угрожал стать реальностью, и союзники теперь всерьез подумывали о военной интервенции» и приступили к усилению « экономической войны » против большевиков. [15] Некоторые большевики видели в России лишь первый шаг, планируя спровоцировать революции против капитализма во всех западных странах, но необходимость мира с Германией увела советского лидера Владимира Ленина от этой позиции. [Д]

В 1918 году Великобритания предоставила деньги и войска для поддержки Белого движения — свободной конфедерации антибольшевистских сил. Эту политику возглавил военный министр Уинстон Черчилль , ярый антикоммунист . [19] долгая и кровопролитная Гражданская война завязалась Между красными и белыми , начавшаяся в 1917 году и закончившаяся в 1923 году победой красных. Оно включало иностранную интервенцию , казнь бывшего императора и его семьи , а также голод 1921 года , в результате которого погибло около пяти миллионов человек. [20] Советская Россия стремилась вновь завоевать все новые независимые страны бывшей Империи, хотя их успех был ограниченным. Эстония , Финляндия , Латвия и Литва отразили советское вторжение, а Украина , Белоруссия (в результате польско-советской войны ), Армения , Азербайджан и Грузия были оккупированы Красной Армией.

Операции Американской администрации помощи в России, 1922 г.

Крупномасштабная продовольственная помощь была распределена в Европу после войны через Американскую администрацию помощи, которой руководил Герберт Гувер . В 1921 году, чтобы облегчить опустошительный голод в РСФСР , вызванный политикой советского правительства в области военного коммунизма , [21] Директор АРА в Европе Уолтер Лайман Браун начал переговоры с наркомом иностранных дел России Максимом Литвиновым в Риге , Латвия (в то время еще не аннексированная СССР). Соглашение было достигнуто 21 августа 1921 года, а дополнительное соглашение о его реализации было подписано Брауном и наркомом внешней торговли Леонидом Красиным 30 декабря 1921 года. Конгресс США выделил 20 миллионов долларов на оказание помощи в соответствии с Законом о помощи голодающим в России от конца 1921 года. Гувер решительно ненавидел большевизм и считал, что американская помощь продемонстрирует превосходство западного капитализма и, таким образом, поможет сдержать распространение коммунизма. [22] [23]

На пике своего развития в ARA работало 300 американцев, более 120 000 россиян, и ежедневно она кормила 10,5 миллионов человек. Его операции в России возглавил полковник Уильям Н. Хаскелл . Медицинский отдел АРА действовал с ноября 1921 по июнь 1923 года и помог преодолеть эпидемию тифа , опустошавшую тогда Россию. Операции ARA по оказанию помощи голодающим проводились параллельно с гораздо меньшими операциями по оказанию помощи голодающим меннонитами , евреями и квакерами в России. [24] [25]

Ленин , Троцкий и Каменев празднуют вторую годовщину Октябрьской революции.

Деятельность АРА в России была прекращена 15 июня 1923 года, после того как выяснилось, что Россия при Ленине возобновила экспорт зерна. [26]

Западные державы приступили к дипломатической изоляции советского правительства. Ленин заявил, что Россия окружена «враждебным капиталистическим окружением», и рассматривал дипломатию как оружие, позволяющее разделить советских врагов. [27] Он основал организацию для содействия сестринским революциям во всем мире — Коминтерн . Повсюду это не удавалось; она потерпела серьезную неудачу, когда попыталась начать революции в Германии , ее провинции Баварии и Венгрии . [28] Неудачи привели к внутреннему повороту Москвы.

Лидеры американской внешней политики по-прежнему были убеждены, что Советский Союз, основанный Советской Россией в 1922 году, представляет собой враждебную угрозу американским ценностям. Госсекретарь-республиканец Чарльз Эванс Хьюз отверг признание, заявив лидерам профсоюзов, что «те, кто контролирует Москву, не отказались от своей первоначальной цели — уничтожить существующие правительства везде, где они могут это сделать, во всем мире». [29] При президенте Кэлвине Кулидже госсекретарь Фрэнк Б. Келлог предупредил, что международное агентство Кремля, Коммунистический Интернационал (Коминтерн), агрессивно планирует подрывную деятельность против других стран, включая Соединенные Штаты, с целью «свергнуть существующий порядок». [30] Герберт Гувер в 1919 году предупредил Вудро Вильсона , что «мы не можем даже отдаленно признать эту убийственную тиранию, не стимулируя действия радикализма в каждой стране Европы и не нарушая каждый наш собственный национальный идеал». [31] В Госдепартаменте США к 1924 году в отделе по делам Восточной Европы доминировал Роберт Ф. Келли , ярый противник коммунизма, воспитавший целое поколение специалистов, включая Джорджа Кеннана и Чарльза Болена . [32]

Великобритания и другие западные державы – в отличие от США – вели дела и иногда признавали новый Советский Союз. За пределами Вашингтона была определенная поддержка возобновления отношений со стороны Америки, особенно в сфере технологий. [33] Генри Форд , веривший в то, что международная торговля — лучший способ избежать войны, использовал свою Ford Motor Company для создания грузовой промышленности и внедрения тракторов в Россию. Архитектор Альберт Кан стал консультантом всего промышленного строительства в Советском Союзе в 1930 году. [34] К 1933 году американское деловое сообщество, а также редакторы газет потребовали дипломатического признания. Президент Франклин Д. Рузвельт использовал президентские полномочия для нормализации отношений в ноябре 1933 года. [35] Однако прогресса в вопросе погашения царских долгов, которые Вашингтон хотел, чтобы Москва погасила, не произошло. Ожидания расширения торговли оказались нереалистичными. Историки Юстус Д. Денеке и Марк А. Столер отмечают, что «обе страны вскоре разочаровались в соглашении». [36] Рузвельт назначил Уильяма Буллита послом с 1933 по 1936 год. Буллит прибыл в Москву с большими надеждами на советско-американские отношения, но его мнение о советском руководстве испортилось при ближайшем рассмотрении. К концу своего пребывания в должности Буллит был открыто враждебен советскому правительству и оставался ярым антикоммунистом до конца своей жизни. [37]

Вторая мировая война

В конце 1930-х годов Иосиф Сталин работал с министром иностранных дел Максимом Литвиновым над продвижением народных фронтов с капиталистическими партиями и правительствами, направленными против фашизма , хотя их главным врагом был так называемый « социал-фашизм » конкурирующих социалистических партий, который частично проложил путь к путь к возвышению нацистов в Германии. [38] [39] В 1939 году, после того как попытки сформировать военный союз с Великобританией и Францией против Германии потерпели неудачу, Советский Союз сделал резкий поворот в сторону нацистской Германии. [40] Почти через год после того, как Великобритания и Франция заключили Мюнхенское соглашение с Германией, Советский Союз в ходе обширных переговоров также заключил соглашения с Германией как в военном, так и в экономическом отношении . В отличие от Великобритании и Франции, соглашение Советского Союза с Германией, Пакт Молотова-Риббентропа (подписанный 23 августа 1939 года), включало секретный протокол, который открыл путь для советского вторжения в восточноевропейские государства и оккупации их территорий . [41] [42] Пакт сделал возможной советскую оккупацию Литвы, Латвии, Эстонии , Бессарабии, Северной Буковины, Герценского региона и восточной Польши . [43]

В конце ноября 1939 года, не имея возможности дипломатическими средствами заставить Финляндскую Республику перенести свою границу на 25 километров (16 миль) назад от Ленинграда , Сталин приказал вторгнуться в Финляндию . 14 декабря 1939 года Советский Союз был исключен из Лиги Наций за вторжение в Финляндию. [44] [45] [46] В июне 1940 года Советский Союз насильственно аннексировал Эстонию, Латвию и Литву . [47]

, Сталинградская битва которую многие историки считают решающим поворотным моментом Второй мировой войны.

Германия нарушила пакт Молотова-Риббентропа и вторглась в Советский Союз 22 июня 1941 года, начав то, что известно в России и некоторых других постсоветских государствах как Великая Отечественная война . Красная Армия остановила, казалось бы, непобедимую немецкую армию в битве под Москвой . , Сталинградская битва продолжавшаяся с конца 1942 по начало 1943 года, нанесла Германии серьёзный удар, от которого она так и не оправилась полностью, и стала переломным моментом в войне. После Сталинграда советские войска прошли через Восточную Европу к Берлину, прежде чем Германия капитулировала в 1945 году . Немецкая армия понесла 80% своих военных потерь на Восточном фронте. [48]

Поставки США по ленд-лизу в СССР

Хотя оперативное сотрудничество между Соединенными Штатами и Советским Союзом было заметно меньше, чем между другими союзными державами, Соединенные Штаты, тем не менее, предоставили Советскому Союзу огромное количество оружия, кораблей, самолетов, подвижного состава, стратегических материалов и продовольствия через Ленд. -Лизинговая программа. [49] [50] Всего поставки в США по ленд-лизу составили 11 миллиардов материалов долларов: более 400 тысяч джипов и грузовиков; 12 000 бронетехники (в том числе 7 000 танков, около 1386 [51] из них были M3 Lees и 4102 M4 Shermans ); [52] 11 400 самолетов (4719 из них Bell P-39 Airacobras ) [53] и 1,75 миллиона тонн продовольствия. [54] Примерно 17,5 миллионов тонн военной техники, транспортных средств, промышленных товаров и продовольствия было отправлено из Западного полушария в СССР, 94% - из США. Для сравнения, с января 1942 по май 1945 года в Европу для снабжения американских войск высадилось в общей сложности 22 миллиона тонн. По оценкам, только по меркам армии США американских поставок в СССР через Персидский коридор было достаточно для поддержания шестидесяти боевых единиц. подразделения в линии. [55] [56]

СССР, во исполнение соглашения с союзниками на Ялтинской конференции , в апреле 1945 года нарушил советско-японский пакт о нейтралитете, который Япония соблюдала, несмотря на свой союз с Германией. [57] и вторглись в Маньчжоу-Го и другие контролируемые Японией территории 9 августа 1945 года. [58] Этот конфликт закончился решающей победой СССР, а атомные бомбардировки Хиросимы и Нагасаки США способствовали безоговорочной капитуляции Японии и окончанию Второй мировой войны. [ нужна ссылка ]

Конференции военного времени по послевоенной Европе

Слева направо генеральный секретарь СССР Иосиф Сталин , президент США Франклин Д. Рузвельт и премьер-министр Великобритании Уинстон Черчилль совещаются в Тегеране, ноябрь 1943 года.

Союзники разошлись во мнениях относительно того, как должна выглядеть карта Европы и как будут проведены границы после войны. [59] Обе стороны придерживались разных идей относительно установления и поддержания послевоенной безопасности. [59] Некоторые ученые утверждают, что все западные союзники хотели создать систему безопасности, в которой демократические правительства были бы установлены как можно более широко, позволяя странам мирно разрешать разногласия через международные организации . [60] Другие отмечают, что атлантические державы разделились во взглядах на новый послевоенный мир. Цели Рузвельта — военная победа как в Европе, так и в Азии, достижение глобального экономического превосходства Америки над Британской империей и создание всемирной организации мира — были более глобальными, чем цели Черчилля, которые в основном были сосредоточены на обеспечении контроля над Средиземноморьем , обеспечении выживание Британской империи и независимость стран Центральной и Восточной Европы в качестве буфера между Советским Союзом и Соединенным Королевством. [61]

« Большая тройка » на Ялтинской конференции : Уинстон Черчилль , Франклин Рузвельт и Иосиф Сталин , февраль 1945 года.

Советский Союз стремился доминировать во внутренних делах стран в своих приграничных регионах. [59] [62] Во время войны Сталин создал специальные учебные центры для коммунистов из разных стран, чтобы они могли создать лояльные Москве силы тайной полиции, как только Красная Армия возьмет власть в свои руки. Советские агенты взяли под свой контроль средства массовой информации, особенно радио; они быстро преследовали, а затем запретили все независимые гражданские институты, от молодежных групп до школ, церквей и конкурирующих политических партий. [И] Сталин также стремился к продолжению мира с Великобританией и Соединенными Штатами, надеясь сосредоточиться на внутренней реконструкции и экономическом росте. [63]

С американской точки зрения, Сталин казался потенциальным союзником в достижении их целей, тогда как с британским подходом Сталин представлял собой величайшую угрозу для выполнения их программы. Поскольку Советы уже оккупировали большую часть Центральной и Восточной Европы, Сталин имел преимущество, и два западных лидера соперничали за его благосклонность. [ нужна ссылка ]

Разногласия между Рузвельтом и Черчиллем привели к заключению нескольких отдельных сделок с Советами. В октябре 1944 года Черчилль отправился в Москву и предложил « процентное соглашение », чтобы разделить Европу на соответствующие сферы влияния , включая предоставление Сталину преобладания над Румынией , Венгрией и Болгарией, а также карт-бланш Черчилля над Грецией. Это предложение было принято Сталиным. На Ялтинской конференции в феврале 1945 года Рузвельт подписал отдельное соглашение со Сталиным относительно Азии и отказался поддерживать Черчилля по вопросам Польши и репараций. [61] Рузвельт в конечном итоге одобрил процентное соглашение. [64] [65] но, очевидно, еще не было твердого консенсуса относительно рамок послевоенного урегулирования в Европе. [66]

Послевоенные оккупационные зоны союзников в Германии

На Второй Квебекской конференции , военной конференции высокого уровня, состоявшейся в Квебеке 12–16 сентября 1944 года, Черчилль и Рузвельт достигли соглашения по ряду вопросов, включая план для Германии, основанный на Генри Моргентау-младшего первоначальном предложении . Меморандум, составленный Черчиллем, предусматривал «ликвидацию военной промышленности в Руре и Сааре… с надеждой превратить Германию в страну, преимущественно сельскохозяйственную и скотоводческую по своему характеру». Однако в него больше не входило плана разделения страны на несколько независимых государств. [Ф] 10 мая 1945 года президент Трумэн подписал оккупационную директиву США JCS 1067, которая действовала более двух лет и была с энтузиазмом поддержана Сталиным. Он предписывал оккупационным силам США «...не предпринимать никаких шагов, направленных на экономическое восстановление Германии». [67]

В апреле 1945 года президент Рузвельт умер, и его место занял вице-президент Гарри С. Трумэн , который не доверял Сталину и обратился за советом к элитной группе внешнеполитических интеллектуалов. И Черчилль, и Трумэн, среди прочего, выступили против решения Советов поддержать люблинское правительство , контролируемого Советским Союзом соперника польского правительства в изгнании первоначальной Второй Польской республики в Лондоне, отношения которого с Советами были плохими. разорван. [68]

После победы союзников над Германией в мае 1945 года Советы фактически оккупировали Центральную и Восточную Европу. [66] в то время как сильные силы США и западных союзников оставались в Западной Европе. В Германии и Австрии Франция, Великобритания, Советский Союз и США установили зоны оккупации и создали свободную структуру для разделенного контроля четырех держав. [69]

Конференция союзников 1945 года в Сан-Франциско учредила многонациональную Организацию Объединенных Наций (ООН) для поддержания мира во всем мире , но способность ее Совета Безопасности к принуждению была фактически парализована способностью отдельных членов применять право вето . [70] Соответственно, ООН была по сути превращена в бездействующий форум для обмена полемической риторикой, а Советы рассматривали ее почти исключительно как пропагандистскую трибуну. [71]

Потсдамская конференция и капитуляция Японии.

Клемент Эттли , Гарри С. Трумэн и Иосиф Сталин на Потсдамской конференции , 1945 год.

На Потсдамской конференции , которая началась в конце июля 1945 года после капитуляции Германии, возникли серьезные разногласия по поводу будущего развития Германии и остальной части Центральной и Восточной Европы. [72] Советы настаивали на своем требовании, выдвинутом в Ялте, о взыскании 20 миллиардов долларов репараций из немецких оккупационных зон. Американцы и британцы отказались установить сумму репараций в долларах, но разрешили Советам вывести часть промышленности из своих зон. [73] Более того, нарастающая антипатия и воинственная риторика участников подтвердили их подозрения относительно враждебных намерений друг друга и укрепили их позиции. [74] На этой конференции Трумэн сообщил Сталину, что Соединенные Штаты обладают новым мощным оружием. [75]

Послевоенная прелюдия и возникновение двух блоков (1945–1947).

Послевоенные территориальные изменения в Европе и формирование Восточного блока, так называемого « железного занавеса ».

США пригласили Великобританию принять участие в проекте создания атомной бомбы, но держали это в секрете от Советского Союза. Сталин знал, что американцы работают над атомной бомбой через своих атомных шпионов на Западе, и отреагировал на эту новость спокойно. [75] Через неделю после окончания Потсдамской конференции США бомбили Хиросиму и Нагасаки . Вскоре после терактов Сталин выразил протест официальным лицам США, когда Трумэн предложил Советам мало реального влияния в оккупированной Японии . [76] Сообщается, что Сталин также был «возмущен» сбросом бомб, назвав их «суперварварством» и заявив, что «баланс нарушен... Этого не может быть». Администрация Трумэна намеревалась использовать свою продолжающуюся программу создания ядерного оружия для оказания давления на Советский Союз в международных отношениях. [75]

После войны Соединенные Штаты и Великобритания использовали вооруженные силы в Греции и Корее, чтобы свергнуть боевые правящие режимы и силы, считающиеся коммунистическими. Под руководством Лю Ун Хёна была сформирована сеть народных комитетов , тайно работавшего во время японской оккупации, по всей японской Корее для координации перехода Кореи к независимости. После капитуляции Японии 28 августа 1945 года эти комитеты сформировали временное национальное правительство Кореи, назвав его Корейской Народной Республикой (НРК). через пару недель [77] [78] Он был провозглашен 6 сентября 1945 года, когда Корея была разделена на две оккупационные зоны: Советский Союз оккупировал север, а Соединенные Штаты - юг. просоветских корейских коммунистов, таких как Ким Ир Сен На юге военное правительство США объявило ФРК вне закона 12 декабря 1945 года. На севере советские власти взяли под свой контроль ФРК, поставив на руководящие посты , и включили их в политическую структуру. формирующейся Корейской Народно-Демократической Республики (Северная Корея). [79] [80]

На начальных этапах Второй мировой войны Советский Союз заложил основу для Восточного или советского блока , вторгшись и затем присоединив к СССР несколько стран в качестве Советских Социалистических Республик в соответствии с соглашением с Германией в Пакте Молотова-Риббентропа . В их число входили восточная Польша ( включенная в состав Белорусской ССР и Украинской ССР ), [81] Латвия (ставшая Латвийской ССР ), [82] [83] Эстония (ставшая Эстонской ССР ), [82] [83] Литва (ставшая Литовской ССР ), [82] [83] часть восточной Финляндии (ставшей Карело-Финской ССР , позже вошедшей в состав РСФСР) и восточной Румынии (ставшей Молдавской ССР ). [84]

Территории Центральной и Восточной Европы, оккупированные Советской армией, были присоединены к Восточному блоку в соответствии с процентным соглашением между Черчиллем и Сталиным, которое, однако, не содержит положений, касающихся ни Польши, ни Чехословакии, ни Германии. Советский Союз превратил оккупированные им территории в государства-сателлиты . [85] такой как:

Более того, были созданы еще две социалистические республики с более высокой степенью независимости от Советского Союза:

Режимы советского типа, возникшие в Блоке, не только воспроизводили советскую командную экономику , но и переняли жестокие методы, применявшиеся Иосифом Сталиным и советской тайной полицией для подавления как реальной, так и предполагаемой оппозиции. [88] В Азии Красная Армия в последний месяц войны захватила Маньчжурию , а затем оккупировала большую часть корейской территории, расположенную к северу от 38-й параллели. [89]

В рамках укрепления сталинского контроля над Восточным блоком Народный комиссариат внутренних дел (НКВД) во главе с Лаврентием Берией контролировал создание в блоке систем тайной полиции советского образца, которые должны были подавить антикоммунистическое сопротивление. [90] Когда в Блоке появились малейшие признаки независимости, стратегия Сталина соответствовала стратегии борьбы с внутренними довоенными соперниками: их отстранили от власти, предали суду, посадили в тюрьму, а в некоторых случаях казнили. [91]

В экономическом плане СССР сконцентрировался на собственном восстановлении, захватив и передав большую часть промышленных предприятий Германии, а также потребовал военных репараций от Восточной Германии , Венгрии , Румынии и Болгарии, используя совместные предприятия, в которых доминировал Советский Союз; он также установил торговые соглашения, намеренно разработанные в пользу страны. Москва контролировала коммунистические партии, управлявшие государствами-сателлитами, и они выполняли приказы Кремля. Историк Марк Крамер заключает: «Чистый отток ресурсов из Восточной Европы в Советский Союз составил примерно от 15 до 20 миллиардов долларов в первое десятилетие после Второй мировой войны, что примерно равно общей сумме помощи, предоставленной Соединенными Штатами Западной Европе. по плану Маршалла ». [92]

Премьер-министр Великобритании Уинстон Черчилль был обеспокоен тем, что, учитывая огромную численность советских войск, развернутых в Европе в конце войны, и представление о ненадежности советского лидера Иосифа Сталина, существовала советская угроза Западной Европе. [93] После Второй мировой войны официальные лица США руководили западноевропейскими лидерами в создании собственных секретных сил безопасности для предотвращения подрывной деятельности в западном блоке, которая переросла в операцию «Гладио» . [94]

Начало холодной войны, сдерживание и доктрина Трумэна (1947–1953)

Железный занавес, Иран, Турция, Греция и Польша

Остатки «железного занавеса» в Чехии , 2014 год.

В конце февраля 1946 года » Джорджа Ф. Кеннана « Длинная телеграмма из Москвы в Вашингтон помогла сформулировать все более жесткую линию правительства США в отношении Советов, которая стала основой стратегии США в отношении Советского Союза на период Холодной войны. Война. Телеграмма активизировала политические дебаты, которые в конечном итоге определили советскую политику администрации Трумэна . [95] Оппозиция Вашингтона Советам накопилась после невыполнения обещаний Сталина и Молотова относительно Европы и Ирана. [96] во время Второй мировой войны После англо-советского вторжения в Иран страна была оккупирована Красной Армией на крайнем севере и британцами на юге. [97] Иран использовался Соединенными Штатами и Великобританией для снабжения Советского Союза, и союзники согласились уйти из Ирана в течение шести месяцев после прекращения боевых действий. [97] Однако, когда этот срок наступил, Советы остались в Иране под прикрытием Народного правительства Азербайджана и Курдской Республики Махабад . [98] Вскоре после этого, 5 марта, бывший премьер-министр Великобритании Уинстон Черчилль произнес свою знаменитую речь о « железном занавесе » в Фултоне, штат Миссури . [99] Речь призывала к англо-американскому союзу против Советов, которых он обвинял в создании «железного занавеса», разделяющего Европу от « Штеттина на Балтике до Триеста на Адриатике ». [85] [100]

Неделю спустя, 13 марта, Сталин энергично отреагировал на эту речь, заявив, что Черчилля можно сравнить с Адольфом Гитлером, поскольку он отстаивает расовое превосходство англоязычных наций , чтобы они могли утолить свою жажду мирового господства, и что такое декларация была «призывом к войне с СССР». Советский лидер также отверг обвинения в том, что СССР усиливает контроль над странами, находящимися в его сфере деятельности. Он утверждал, что нет ничего удивительного в том, «что Советский Союз, заботясь о своей будущей безопасности, [пытался] позаботиться о том, чтобы в этих странах существовали правительства, лояльные в своем отношении к Советскому Союзу». [101] [102]

Европейские военные союзы
Европейские экономические блоки

Советские территориальные требования к Турции в отношении Дарданелл в кризисе Турецких проливов и пограничных спорах на Черном море также были основным фактором роста напряженности. [103] [96] В сентябре советская сторона представила телеграмму Новикову , отправленную советским послом в США, но заказанную и «в соавторстве» с Вячеславом Молотовым ; он изображал США как находящиеся во власти капиталистов-монополистов, которые наращивали военный потенциал, «чтобы подготовить условия для завоевания мирового господства в новой войне». [104] 6 сентября 1946 года Джеймс Ф. Бирнс выступил в Германии с речью, отвергающей план Моргентау (предложение о разделе и деиндустриализации послевоенной Германии) и предупредивший Советы, что США намерены поддерживать военное присутствие в Европе на неопределенный срок. [105] [106] Как заявил месяц спустя Бирнс: «Суть нашей программы заключалась в том, чтобы завоевать немецкий народ… это была битва между нами и Россией за умы…» В декабре Советы согласились уйти из Ирана после постоянного давления со стороны США. , ранний успех политики сдерживания.

К 1947 году президент США Гарри С. Трумэн был возмущен предполагаемым сопротивлением Советского Союза американским требованиям в Иране, Турции и Греции, а также отказом Советского Союза от плана Баруха по ядерному оружию. [107] В феврале 1947 года британское правительство объявило, что оно больше не может позволить себе финансировать Королевство Греция в его гражданской войне против повстанцев, возглавляемых коммунистами. [108] В том же месяце Сталин провел сфальсифицированные выборы в законодательные органы Польши в 1947 году , что представляло собой открытое нарушение Ялтинского соглашения . Правительство США отреагировало на это заявление, приняв политику сдерживания . [109] с целью остановить распространение коммунизма . Трумэн выступил с речью, призывающей выделить 400 миллионов долларов на вмешательство в войну, и обнародовал доктрину Трумэна , которая рассматривала конфликт как соревнование между свободными народами и тоталитарными режимами. [109] Американские политики обвинили Советский Союз в заговоре против греческих роялистов в попытке расширить советское влияние, хотя Сталин велел Коммунистической партии сотрудничать с правительством, поддерживаемым Великобританией. [110] помогала Иосипа Броз Тито . ) Социалистическая Федеративная Республика Югославия (Повстанцам вопреки желанию Сталина [111] [112]

Провозглашение доктрины Трумэна ознаменовало начало двухпартийного консенсуса в области обороны и внешней политики США между республиканцами и демократами, сосредоточенного на сдерживании и сдерживании, который ослабел во время и после войны во Вьетнаме , но в конечном итоге сохранялся и после этого. [113] Умеренные и консервативные партии Европы, а также социал-демократы оказали практически безоговорочную поддержку западному альянсу. [114] в то время как европейские и американские коммунисты , финансируемые КГБ и участвовавшие в его разведывательных операциях, [115] придерживался линии Москвы, хотя инакомыслие начало появляться после 1956 года. Другая критика политики консенсуса исходила от активистов, выступающих против войны во Вьетнаме , Кампании за ядерное разоружение и антиядерного движения . [116]

План Маршалла, чехословацкий государственный переворот и образование двух немецких государств

Маркировка, используемая в рамках плана Маршалла. экономической помощи Западной Европе в
времен холодной войны Карта Европы и Ближнего Востока с указанием стран, получивших помощь по плану Маршалла. Красные столбцы показывают относительную сумму общей помощи, полученной каждой страной.
Строительство в Западном Берлине при помощи плана Маршалла

В начале 1947 года Франция, Великобритания и США безуспешно пытались достичь соглашения с Советским Союзом по плану, предусматривавшему создание экономически самодостаточной Германии, включая подробный учет промышленных предприятий, товаров и инфраструктуры, уже захваченных Советским Союзом. [117] В июне 1947 года, в соответствии с доктриной Трумэна , Соединенные Штаты приняли план Маршалла , гарантировавший экономическую помощь всем европейским странам, желающим участвовать, включая Советский Союз. [117] В соответствии с планом, который президент Гарри С. Трумэн подписал 3 апреля 1948 года, правительство США выделило странам Западной Европы более 13 миллиардов долларов (что эквивалентно 189,39 миллиардам долларов в 2016 году) на восстановление экономики Европы . Позже программа привела к созданию ОЭСР .

Целью плана было восстановление демократической и экономической систем Европы и противодействие предполагаемым угрозам европейскому балансу сил , таким как захват коммунистическими партиями контроля посредством революций или выборов. [118] В плане также говорилось, что европейское процветание зависит от восстановления экономики Германии. [119] Месяц спустя Трумэн подписал Закон о национальной безопасности 1947 года , создав объединенное Министерство обороны , Центральное разведывательное управление (ЦРУ) и Совет национальной безопасности (СНБ). Они станут основными бюрократическими структурами оборонной политики США во время холодной войны. [120]

Сталин считал, что экономическая интеграция с Западом позволит странам Восточного блока выйти из-под советского контроля, и что США пытались купить проамериканское переустройство Европы. [121] Таким образом, Сталин не позволил странам Восточного блока получить помощь по плану Маршалла. [121] Альтернатива Советского Союза плану Маршалла, который должен был включать советские субсидии и торговлю с Центральной и Восточной Европой, стала известна как « План Молотова» (позже в январе 1949 года он был институционализирован как Совет экономической взаимопомощи ). [111] Сталин также боялся воссозданной Германии; его видение послевоенной Германии не включало в себя возможность перевооружения или создания какой-либо угрозы Советскому Союзу. [122]

В начале 1948 года, после сообщений об усилении «реакционных элементов», чешские коммунисты совершили государственный переворот в Чехословакии (в результате которого образовалась Чехословацкая Социалистическая Республика (9 мая 1948 года)), единственном государстве Восточного блока, которому Советский Союз разрешил. сохранить демократические структуры. [123] Публичная жестокость переворота потрясла западные державы больше, чем любое событие до этого момента, породила кратковременную панику по поводу возможной войны и смела последние остатки оппозиции плану Маршалла в Конгрессе Соединенных Штатов. [124] [125]

Сразу после кризиса была проведена Лондонская конференция шести держав , результатом которой стал советский бойкот Контрольного совета союзников и его вывод из строя. Это событие ознаменовало начало полномасштабной холодной войны и конец ее прелюдии. а также положить конец любым тогдашним надеждам на единое правительство Германии и привести к образованию в 1949 году Федеративной Республики Германия и Германской Демократической Республики . [126]

Открытая враждебность и эскалация (1948–1962)

Двойная политика доктрины Трумэна и плана Маршалла привела к выделению миллиардов долларов экономической и военной помощи Западной Европе, Греции и Турции. С помощью США греческие военные выиграли гражданскую войну . [120] Под руководством Альчиде Де Гаспери итальянские христианские демократы мощный коммунистически - социалистический разгромили на выборах 1948 союз . [127]

Шпионаж

Все крупные державы занимались шпионажем, используя самых разных шпионов, двойных агентов , «кротов » и новые технологии, такие как прослушивание телефонных кабелей. [128] Советский КГБ («Комитет государственной безопасности»), бюро, ответственное за иностранный шпионаж и внутреннее наблюдение, славилось своей эффективностью. В самой известной советской операции участвовали атомные шпионы США , которые передали важную информацию из Манхэттенского проекта , что привело СССР к взрыву своего первого ядерного оружия в 1949 году, через четыре года после американского взрыва и гораздо раньше, чем ожидалось. [129] [130] Массивная сеть информаторов по всему Советскому Союзу использовалась для отслеживания инакомыслия с официальной советской политикой и моралью. [131] [132] Хотя в определенной степени дезинформация существовала всегда, сам термин был изобретен, а стратегия формализована отделом черной пропаганды советского КГБ. [133] [134]

Основываясь на количестве обнародованной сверхсекретной архивной информации времен Холодной войны, историк Рэймонд Л. Гартофф приходит к выводу, что, вероятно, существовал паритет в количестве и качестве секретной информации, полученной каждой стороной. Однако у Советов, вероятно, было преимущество с точки зрения HUMINT (человеческая разведка или межличностный шпионаж) и «иногда в его доступе к высшим политическим кругам». Однако с точки зрения решающего воздействия он заключает: [135]

Теперь мы также можем с большой уверенностью утверждать, что ни с одной из сторон не было успешных «кротов» на уровне принятия политических решений. Точно так же ни с одной стороны нет никаких доказательств того, что какое-либо важное политическое или военное решение было преждевременно обнаружено в результате шпионажа и сорвано другой стороной. Также нет никаких свидетельств того, что какое-либо важное политическое или военное решение было принято под решающим влиянием (а тем более принято) агентом другой стороны.

По словам историка Роберта Луи Бенсона, «сильной стороной Вашингтона была «сигнальная разведка» — сбор и анализ закодированных иностранных сообщений». что привело к проекту Венона или перехватам Веноны, которые отслеживали общение агентов советской разведки. [136] Мойнихан писал, что проект Венона содержал «неопровержимые доказательства деятельности советских шпионских сетей в Америке, дополненные именами, датами, местами и делами». [137] Проект Венона держался в строжайшем секрете даже от политиков до Комиссии Мойнихана в 1995 году. [137] Несмотря на это, проект расшифровки уже был предан и отправлен в СССР Кимом Филби и Биллом Вейсбандом в 1946 году. [137] [138] как было обнаружено в США к 1950 году. [139] Тем не менее, Советам также пришлось держать в секрете открытие программы и продолжать сливать свою собственную информацию, часть которой все еще была полезна для американской программы. [138] По словам Мойнихана, даже президент Трумэн, возможно, не был полностью проинформирован о Веноне, из-за чего он мог не осознавать масштабы советского шпионажа. [140] [141]

Тайные атомные шпионы из Советского Союза, которые проникали в Манхэттенский проект в различные моменты Второй мировой войны, сыграли важную роль в усилении напряженности, которая привела к холодной войне. [136]

Помимо обычного шпионажа, западные ведомства уделяли особое внимание допросу перебежчиков из Восточного блока . [142] [ цитата не найдена ] Эдвард Джей Эпштейн описывает, что ЦРУ понимало, что КГБ использовал «провокации» или ложное дезертирство как уловку, чтобы поставить в неловкое положение западную разведку и установить советских двойных агентов. В результате с 1959 по 1973 год ЦРУ требовало, чтобы перебежчики из Восточного блока прошли контрразведывательное расследование, прежде чем их завербовали в качестве источника разведывательной информации. [143]

В конце 1970-х и 1980-х годах КГБ усовершенствовал использование шпионажа для влияния и искажения дипломатии. [144] Активные меры представляли собой «тайные операции, направленные на достижение советских внешнеполитических целей», состоящие из дезинформации, подделок, утечки информации в зарубежные средства массовой информации и направления помощи группировкам боевиков. [145] Генерал-майор КГБ в отставке Олег Калугин , бывший начальник Управления внешней контрразведки КГБ (1973–1979), охарактеризовал активные меры как «сердце и душу советской разведки ». [146]

Во время советско-китайского раскола между СССР и КНР происходили и «шпионские войны». [147]

Коминформ и раскол Тито и Сталина

В сентябре 1947 года Советы создали Коминформ , чтобы навязать ортодоксальность международному коммунистическому движению и ужесточить политический контроль над советскими сателлитами посредством координации коммунистических партий в Восточном блоке . [121] Коминформ столкнулся с досадной неудачей в июне следующего года, когда раскол Тито и Сталина вынудил своих членов изгнать Югославию, которая оставалась коммунистической, но заняла позицию неприсоединения и начала принимать финансовую помощь от Соединенных Штатов. [148]

Помимо Берлина, под вопросом был статус города Триест . До разрыва между Тито и Сталиным западные державы и Восточный блок бескомпромиссно смотрели друг на друга. Помимо капитализма и коммунизма, итальянцы и словенцы, монархисты и республиканцы, а также победители и проигравшие в войне часто противостояли друг другу непримиримо. Нейтральное буферное государство Свободная территория Триест , основанное в 1947 году совместно с Организацией Объединенных Наций, было разделено и распущено в 1954 и 1975 годах, также из-за разрядки между Западом и Тито. [149] [150]

Блокада Берлина и воздушные перевозки

Американские C-47 разгружаются в аэропорту Темпельхоф в Берлине во время блокады Берлина.

Соединенные Штаты и Великобритания объединили свои оккупационные зоны западной Германии в «Бизонию» (1 января 1947 г., позже «Тризонию» с добавлением зоны Франции, апрель 1949 г.). [151] В рамках экономического восстановления Германии в начале 1948 года представители ряда западноевропейских правительств и США объявили о соглашении о слиянии западногерманских территорий в федеральную систему управления. [152] Кроме того, в соответствии с планом Маршалла они начали реиндустриализацию и восстановление экономики Западной Германии, включая введение новой валюты немецкой марки взамен старой валюты рейхсмарки , которую Советы обесценили. [153] США тайно решили, что единая и нейтральная Германия нежелательна, а Уолтер Беделл Смит сказал генералу Эйзенхауэру: «Несмотря на нашу объявленную позицию, мы действительно не хотим и не собираемся принимать объединение Германии ни на каких условиях, на которые могли бы согласиться русские». даже несмотря на то, что они, кажется, отвечают большинству наших требований». [154]

Вскоре после этого Сталин ввел блокаду Берлина (24 июня 1948 г. - 12 мая 1949 г.), один из первых крупных кризисов холодной войны, не позволивший западным продовольствию, материалам и припасам прибыть в эксклав Западной Германии, Западный Берлин . [155] США (в первую очередь), Великобритания, Франция, Канада, Австралия, Новая Зеландия и ряд других стран начали массированную «воздушную переброску в Берлин», снабжая Западный Берлин продовольствием и другими продуктами, несмотря на советские угрозы. [156]

Советы развернули пиар-кампанию против изменения политики. Коммунисты Восточного Берлина снова попытались сорвать муниципальные выборы в Берлине (как они это сделали на выборах 1946 года). [151] которые состоялись 5 декабря 1948 года и обеспечили явку в 86,3% и подавляющую победу некоммунистических партий. [157] The results effectively divided the city into East and West, the latter comprising US, British and French sectors. 300,000 Berliners demonstrated and urged the international airlift to continue,[158] and US Air Force pilot Gail Halvorsen created "Operation Vittles", which supplied candy to German children.[159] The Airlift was as much a logistical as a political and psychological success for the West; it firmly linked West Berlin to the United States.[160] In May 1949, Stalin backed down and lifted the blockade.[90][161]

In 1952, Stalin repeatedly proposed a plan to unify East and West Germany under a single government chosen in elections supervised by the United Nations, if the new Germany were to stay out of Western military alliances, but this proposal was turned down by the Western powers. Some sources dispute the sincerity of the proposal.[162]

Beginnings of NATO and Radio Free Europe

President Truman signs the North Atlantic Treaty with guests in the Oval Office.

Britain, France, the United States, Canada and eight other western European countries signed the North Atlantic Treaty of April 1949, establishing the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).[90] That August, the first Soviet atomic device was detonated in Semipalatinsk, Kazakh SSR.[111] Following Soviet refusals to participate in a German rebuilding effort set forth by western European countries in 1948,[152][163] the US, Britain and France spearheaded the establishment of the Federal Republic of Germany from the three Western zones of occupation in April 1949.[164] The Soviet Union proclaimed its zone of occupation in Germany the German Democratic Republic that October.[72]

Media in the Eastern Bloc was an organ of the state, completely reliant on and subservient to the communist party. Radio and television organizations were state-owned, while print media was usually owned by political organizations, mostly by the local communist party.[165] Soviet radio broadcasts used Marxist rhetoric to attack capitalism, emphasizing themes of labor exploitation, imperialism and war-mongering.[166]

Along with the broadcasts of the BBC and the Voice of America to Central and Eastern Europe,[167] a major propaganda effort begun in 1949 was Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, dedicated to bringing about the peaceful demise of the communist system in the Eastern Bloc.[168] Radio Free Europe attempted to achieve these goals by serving as a surrogate home radio station, an alternative to the controlled and party-dominated domestic press in the Soviet Bloc.[168] Radio Free Europe was a product of some of the most prominent architects of America's early Cold War strategy, especially those who believed that the Cold War would eventually be fought by political rather than military means, such as George F. Kennan.[169] Soviet and Eastern Bloc authorities used various methods to suppress Western broadcasts, including radio jamming.[170][171]

American policymakers, including Kennan and John Foster Dulles, acknowledged that the Cold War was in its essence a war of ideas.[169] The United States, acting through the CIA, funded a long list of projects to counter the communist appeal among intellectuals in Europe and the developing world.[172] The CIA also covertly sponsored a domestic propaganda campaign called Crusade for Freedom.[173]

German rearmament

The rearmament of West Germany was achieved in the early 1950s. Its main promoter was Konrad Adenauer, the chancellor of West Germany, with France the main opponent. Washington had the decisive voice. It was strongly supported by the Pentagon (the US military leadership), and weakly opposed by President Truman; the State Department was ambivalent. The outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 changed the calculations and Washington now gave full support. That also involved naming Dwight D. Eisenhower in charge of NATO forces and sending more American troops to West Germany. There was a strong promise that West Germany would not develop nuclear weapons.[174]

Widespread fears of another rise of German militarism necessitated the new military to operate within an alliance framework under NATO command.[175] In 1955, Washington secured full German membership of NATO.[72] In May 1953, Lavrentiy Beria, by then in a government post, had made an unsuccessful proposal to allow the reunification of a neutral Germany to prevent West Germany's incorporation into NATO, but his attempts were cut short after he was executed several months later during a Soviet power struggle.[176] The events led to the establishment of the Bundeswehr, the West German military, in 1955.[177][178]

Chinese Civil War, SEATO, and NSC 68

Mao Zedong and Joseph Stalin in Moscow, December 1949

In 1949, Mao Zedong's People's Liberation Army defeated Chiang Kai-shek's United States-backed Kuomintang (KMT) Nationalist Government in China. The KMT-controlled territory was now restricted to the island of Taiwan, the nationalist government of which exists to this day. The Kremlin promptly created an alliance with the newly formed People's Republic of China.[179] According to Norwegian historian Odd Arne Westad, the communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang Kai-Shek made, and because in his search for a powerful centralized government, Chiang antagonized too many interest groups in China. Moreover, his party was weakened during the war against Japan. Meanwhile, the communists told different groups, such as the peasants, exactly what they wanted to hear, and they cloaked themselves under the cover of Chinese nationalism.[180]

Confronted with the communist revolution in China and the end of the American atomic monopoly in 1949, the Truman administration quickly moved to escalate and expand its containment doctrine.[111] In NSC 68, a secret 1950 document, the National Security Council proposed reinforcing pro-Western alliance systems and quadrupling spending on defense.[111] Truman, under the influence of advisor Paul Nitze, saw containment as implying complete rollback of Soviet influence in all its forms.[181]

United States officials moved to expand this version of containment into Asia, Africa, and Latin America, in order to counter revolutionary nationalist movements, often led by communist parties financed by the USSR.[182] In this way, this US would exercise "preponderant power," oppose neutrality, and establish global hegemony.[181] In the early 1950s (a period sometimes known as the "Pactomania"), the US formalized a series of alliances with Japan (a former WWII enemy), South Korea, Taiwan, Australia, New Zealand, Thailand and the Philippines (notably ANZUS in 1951 and SEATO in 1954), thereby guaranteeing the United States a number of long-term military bases.[72]

Korean War

General Douglas MacArthur, UN Command CiC (seated), observes the naval shelling of Incheon, Korea from USS Mt. McKinley, 15 September 1950.

One of the more significant examples of the implementation of containment was the United Nations US-led intervention in the Korean War. In June 1950, after years of mutual hostilities,[G][183][184] Kim Il Sung's North Korean People's Army invaded South Korea at the 38th parallel. Stalin had been reluctant to support the invasion[H] but ultimately sent advisers.[185] To Stalin's surprise,[111] the United Nations Security Council Resolution 82 and 83 backed the defense of South Korea, although the Soviets were then boycotting meetings in protest of the fact that Taiwan (Republic of China), not the People's Republic of China, held a permanent seat on the council.[186] A UN force of sixteen countries faced North Korea,[187] although 40 percent of troops were South Korean, and about 50 percent were from the United States.[188]

US Marines engaged in street fighting during the liberation of Seoul, September 1950

The US initially seemed to follow containment when it first entered the war. This directed the US's action to only push back North Korea across the 38th Parallel and restore South Korea's sovereignty while allowing North Korea's survival as a state. However, the success of the Inchon landing inspired the US/UN forces to pursue a rollback strategy instead and to overthrow communist North Korea, thereby allowing nationwide elections under U.N. auspices.[189] General Douglas MacArthur then advanced across the 38th Parallel into North Korea. The Chinese, fearful of a possible US invasion, sent in a large army and defeated the U.N. forces, pushing them back below the 38th parallel. Truman publicly hinted that he might use his "ace in the hole" of the atomic bomb, but Mao was unmoved.[190] The episode was used to support the wisdom of the containment doctrine as opposed to rollback. The Communists were later pushed to roughly around the original border, with minimal changes. Among other effects, the Korean War galvanised NATO to develop a military structure.[191] Public opinion in countries involved, such as Great Britain, was divided for and against the war.[192]

After the Korean Armistice Agreement was approved in July 1953, North Korean leader Kim Il Sung created a highly centralized, totalitarian dictatorship that accorded his family unlimited power while generating a pervasive cult of personality.[193][194] In the South, the American-backed dictator Syngman Rhee ran an authoritarian regime that engaged in anti-communist mass killings.[195] While Rhee was overthrown in 1960, South Korea continued to be ruled by a military government of former Japanese collaborators until the re-establishment of a multi-party system in the late 1980s. Subsequently, South Korea experienced an economic boom and became one of the most advanced countries on the planet.[196]

Khrushchev, Eisenhower, and de-Stalinization

NATO and Warsaw Pact troop strengths in Europe in 1959

In 1953, changes in political leadership on both sides shifted the dynamic of the Cold War.[120] Dwight D. Eisenhower was inaugurated president that January. During the last 18 months of the Truman administration, the American defense budget had quadrupled, and Eisenhower moved to reduce military spending by a third while continuing to fight the Cold War effectively.[111]

Joseph Stalin died in 1953. Without a mutually agreeable successor, the highest Communist Party officials initially opted to rule the Soviet Union jointly through a troika headed by Georgy Malenkov. This did not last, however, and Nikita Khrushchev eventually won the ensuing power struggle by the mid-1950s. In 1956, he denounced Joseph Stalin and proceeded to ease controls over the party and society. This was known as de-Stalinization.[120]

From left to right: Soviet head of state Kliment Voroshilov, Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev and Finnish president Urho Kekkonen at Moscow in 1960

On 18 November 1956, while addressing Western dignitaries at a reception in Moscow's Polish embassy, Khrushchev infamously declared, "Whether you like it or not, history is on our side. We will bury you", shocking everyone present.[I] He would later claim he had not been referring to nuclear war, but the "historically fated victory of communism over capitalism."[197] In 1961, Khrushchev boasted that, even if the Soviet Union was currently behind the West, its housing shortage would disappear within ten years, consumer goods would be made abundant, and the "construction of a communist society" would be completed "in the main" within no more than two decades.[198]

Eisenhower's secretary of state, John Foster Dulles, initiated a "New Look" for the containment strategy, calling for a greater reliance on nuclear weapons against US enemies in wartime.[120] Dulles also enunciated the doctrine of "massive retaliation", threatening a severe US response to any Soviet aggression. Possessing nuclear superiority, for example, allowed Eisenhower to face down Soviet threats to intervene in the Middle East during the 1956 Suez Crisis.[111] The declassified US plans for retaliatory nuclear strikes in the late 1950s included the "systematic destruction" of 1,200 major urban centers in the Soviet Bloc and China, including Moscow, East Berlin and Beijing.[199][J]

In spite of these events, there were substantial hopes for détente when an upswing in diplomacy took place in 1959, including a two-week visit by Khrushchev to the US, and plans for a two-power summit for May 1960. The latter was disturbed by the U-2 spy plane scandal, however, in which Eisenhower was caught lying about the intrusion of American surveillance aircraft into Soviet territory.[200][201]

Warsaw Pact and Hungarian Revolution

The Hungarian Revolution of 1956
March of protesters in Budapest, on 25 October;
A destroyed Soviet T-34-85 tank in Budapest
The maximum territorial extent of Soviet influence, after the Cuban Revolution of 1959 and before the official Sino-Soviet split of 1961

While Stalin's death in 1953 slightly relaxed tensions, the situation in Europe remained an uneasy armed truce.[202] The Soviets, who had already created a network of mutual assistance treaties in the Eastern Bloc by 1949, established a formal alliance therein, the Warsaw Pact, in 1955. It stood opposed to NATO.[72]

Hungarian flag (1949–1956) with the communist coat of arms cut out was an anti-Soviet revolutionary symbol

The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 occurred shortly after Khrushchev arranged the removal of Hungary's Stalinist leader Mátyás Rákosi.[203] In response to a popular anti-communist uprising,[K] the new regime formally disbanded the secret police, declared its intention to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact and pledged to re-establish free elections. The Soviet Army invaded.[204] Thousands of Hungarians were killed and arrested, imprisoned and deported to the Soviet Union,[205] and approximately 200,000 Hungarians fled Hungary in the chaos.[206] Hungarian leader Imre Nagy and others were executed following secret trials.[L]

From 1957 through 1961, Khrushchev openly and repeatedly threatened the West with nuclear annihilation. He claimed that Soviet missile capabilities were far superior to those of the United States, capable of wiping out any American or European city. According to John Lewis Gaddis, Khrushchev rejected Stalin's "belief in the inevitability of war," however. The new leader declared his ultimate goal was "peaceful coexistence".[207] In Khrushchev's formulation, peace would allow capitalism to collapse on its own,[208] as well as giving the Soviets time to boost their military capabilities,[209] which remained for decades until Gorbachev's later "new thinking" envisioning peaceful coexistence as an end in itself rather than a form of class struggle.[210]

The events in Hungary produced ideological fractures within the communist parties of the world, particularly in Western Europe, with great decline in membership, as many in both western and socialist countries felt disillusioned by the brutal Soviet response.[211] The communist parties in the West would never recover from the effect the Hungarian Revolution had on their membership, a fact that was immediately recognized by some, such as the Yugoslavian politician Milovan Đilas who shortly after the revolution was crushed said that "The wound which the Hungarian Revolution inflicted on communism can never be completely healed".[211]

Rapacki Plan and Berlin Crisis of 1958–1959

In 1957, Polish foreign minister Adam Rapacki proposed the Rapacki Plan for a nuclear free zone in central Europe. Public opinion tended to be favourable in the West, but it was rejected by leaders of West Germany, Britain, France and the United States. They feared it would leave the powerful conventional armies of the Warsaw Pact dominant over the weaker NATO armies.[212]

During November 1958, Khrushchev made an unsuccessful attempt to turn all of Berlin into an independent, demilitarized "free city". He gave the United States, Great Britain and France a six-month ultimatum to withdraw their troops from the sectors of West Berlin, or he would transfer control of Western access rights to the East Germans. Khrushchev earlier explained to Mao Zedong that "Berlin is the testicles of the West. Every time I want to make the West scream, I squeeze on Berlin."[213] NATO formally rejected the ultimatum in mid-December and Khrushchev withdrew it in return for a Geneva conference on the German question.[214]

American military buildup

John F. Kennedy's foreign policy was dominated by American confrontations with the Soviet Union, manifested by proxy contests. Like Truman and Eisenhower, Kennedy supported containment to stop the spread of Communism. President Eisenhower's New Look policy had emphasized the use of less expensive nuclear weapons to deter Soviet aggression by threatening massive nuclear attacks on all of the Soviet Union. Nuclear weapons were much cheaper than maintaining a large standing army, so Eisenhower cut conventional forces to save money. Kennedy implemented a new strategy known as flexible response. This strategy relied on conventional arms to achieve limited goals. As part of this policy, Kennedy expanded the United States special operations forces, elite military units that could fight unconventionally in various conflicts. Kennedy hoped that the flexible response strategy would allow the US to counter Soviet influence without resorting to nuclear war.[215]

To support his new strategy, Kennedy ordered a massive increase in defense spending. He sought, and Congress provided, a rapid build-up of the nuclear arsenal to restore the lost superiority over the Soviet Union—he claimed in 1960 that Eisenhower had lost it because of excessive concern with budget deficits. In his inaugural address, Kennedy promised "to bear any burden" in the defense of liberty, and he repeatedly asked for increases in military spending and authorization of new weapons systems. From 1961 to 1964, the number of nuclear weapons increased by 50 percent, as did the number of B-52 bombers to deliver them. The new ICBM force grew from 63 intercontinental ballistic missiles to 424. He authorized 23 new Polaris submarines, each of which carried 16 nuclear missiles. Kennedy also called on cities to construct fallout shelters.[216][217]

Competition in the Third World

European colonial empires in Asia and Africa all collapsed in the years after 1945.

Nationalist movements in some countries and regions, notably Guatemala, Indonesia and Indochina, were often allied with communist groups or otherwise perceived to be unfriendly to Western interests.[120] In this context, the United States and the Soviet Union increasingly competed for influence by proxy in the Third World as decolonization gained momentum in the 1950s and early 1960s.[218] Both sides were selling armaments to gain influence.[219] The Kremlin saw continuing territorial losses by imperial powers as presaging the eventual victory of their ideology.[220]

The United States used the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to undermine neutral or hostile Third World governments and to support allied ones.[221] In 1953, President Eisenhower implemented Operation Ajax, a covert coup operation to overthrow the Iranian prime minister, Mohammad Mosaddegh. The popularly elected Mosaddegh had been a Middle Eastern nemesis of Britain since nationalizing the British-owned Anglo-Iranian Oil Company in 1951. Winston Churchill told the United States that Mosaddegh was "increasingly turning towards Communist influence."[222][223][224] The pro-Western shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, assumed control as an autocratic monarch.[225] The shah's policies included banning the communist Tudeh Party of Iran, and general suppression of political dissent by SAVAK, the shah's domestic security and intelligence agency.

In Guatemala, a banana republic, the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état ousted the left-wing President Jacobo Árbenz with material CIA support.[226] The post-Arbenz government—a military junta headed by Carlos Castillo Armas—repealed a progressive land reform law, returned nationalized property belonging to the United Fruit Company, set up a National Committee of Defense Against Communism, and decreed a Preventive Penal Law Against Communism at the request of the United States.[227]

The non-aligned Indonesian government of Sukarno was faced with a major threat to its legitimacy beginning in 1956 when several regional commanders began to demand autonomy from Jakarta. After mediation failed, Sukarno took action to remove the dissident commanders. In February 1958, dissident military commanders in Central Sumatra (Colonel Ahmad Husein) and North Sulawesi (Colonel Ventje Sumual) declared the Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia-Permesta Movement aimed at overthrowing the Sukarno regime. They were joined by many civilian politicians from the Masyumi Party, such as Sjafruddin Prawiranegara, who were opposed to the growing influence of the communist Partai Komunis Indonesia. Due to their anti-communist rhetoric, the rebels received arms, funding, and other covert aid from the CIA until Allen Lawrence Pope, an American pilot, was shot down after a bombing raid on government-held Ambon in April 1958. The central government responded by launching airborne and seaborne military invasions of rebel strongholds at Padang and Manado. By the end of 1958, the rebels were militarily defeated, and the last remaining rebel guerilla bands surrendered by August 1961.[228]

1961 Russian stamp commemorating Patrice Lumumba, assassinated prime minister of the Republic of the Congo

In the Republic of the Congo, also known as Congo-Léopoldville, newly independent from Belgium since June 1960, the Congo Crisis erupted on 5 July leading to the secession of the regions Katanga and South Kasai. CIA-backed President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ordered the dismissal of the democratically elected Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba and the Lumumba cabinet in September over massacres by the armed forces during the invasion of South Kasai and for involving Soviets in the country.[229][230] Later the CIA-backed Colonel Mobutu Sese Seko quickly mobilized his forces to seize power through a military coup d'état, [230] and worked with Western intelligence agencies to imprison Lumumba and hand him over to Katangan authorities who executed him by firing squad.[231][232]

In British Guiana, the leftist People's Progressive Party (PPP) candidate Cheddi Jagan won the position of chief minister in a colonially administered election in 1953 but was quickly forced to resign from power after Britain's suspension of the still-dependent nation's constitution.[233] Embarrassed by the landslide electoral victory of Jagan's allegedly Marxist party, the British imprisoned the PPP's leadership and maneuvered the organization into a divisive rupture in 1955, engineering a split between Jagan and his PPP colleagues.[234] Jagan again won the colonial elections in 1957 and 1961, despite Britain's shift to a reconsideration of its view of the left-wing Jagan as a Soviet-style communist at this time. The United States pressured the British to withhold Guyana's independence until an alternative to Jagan could be identified, supported, and brought into office.[235]

Worn down by the communist guerrilla war for Vietnamese independence and handed a watershed defeat by communist Viet Minh rebels at the 1954 Battle of Dien Bien Phu, the French accepted a negotiated abandonment of their colonial stake in Vietnam. In the Geneva Conference, peace accords were signed, leaving Vietnam divided between a pro-Soviet administration in North Vietnam and a pro-Western administration in South Vietnam at the 17th parallel north. Between 1954 and 1961, Eisenhower's United States sent economic aid and military advisers to strengthen South Vietnam's pro-Western government against communist efforts to destabilize it.[111]

Many emerging nations of Asia, Africa, and Latin America rejected the pressure to choose sides in the East–West competition. In 1955, at the Bandung Conference in Indonesia, dozens of Third World governments resolved to stay out of the Cold War.[236] The consensus reached at Bandung culminated with the creation of the Belgrade-headquartered Non-Aligned Movement in 1961.[120] Meanwhile, Khrushchev broadened Moscow's policy to establish ties with India and other key neutral states. Independence movements in the Third World transformed the post-war order into a more pluralistic world of decolonized African and Middle Eastern nations and of rising nationalism in Asia and Latin America.[111]

Sino-Soviet split

Map showing greatest territorial extent of the Soviet Union and the states that it dominated politically, economically and militarily in 1960, after the Cuban Revolution of 1959 but before the official Sino-Soviet split of 1961 (total area: c. 35,000,000 km2)[M]
A map showing the relations of Marxist–Leninist states after the Sino-Soviet split, as of 1980:
  The USSR and pro-Soviet socialist states
  China and pro-Chinese socialist states
  Neutral socialist states (North Korea and Yugoslavia)
  Non-socialist states

After 1956, the Sino-Soviet alliance began to break down. Mao had defended Stalin when Khrushchev criticized him in 1956 and treated the new Soviet leader as a superficial upstart, accusing him of having lost his revolutionary edge.[237] For his part, Khrushchev, disturbed by Mao's glib attitude toward nuclear war, referred to the Chinese leader as a "lunatic on a throne".[238]

After this, Khrushchev made many desperate attempts to reconstitute the Sino-Soviet alliance, but Mao considered it useless and denied any proposal.[237] The Chinese-Soviet animosity spilled out in an intra-communist propaganda war.[239] Further on, the Soviets focused on a bitter rivalry with Mao's China for leadership of the global communist movement.[240] Historian Lorenz M. Lüthi argues:

The Sino-Soviet split was one of the key events of the Cold War, equal in importance to the construction of the Berlin Wall, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Second[clarification needed] Vietnam War, and Sino-American rapprochement. The split helped to determine the framework of the Second Cold War in general, and influenced the course of the Second Vietnam War in particular.[241]

Space Race

The United States reached the Moon in 1969.

On the nuclear weapons front, the United States and the Soviet Union pursued nuclear rearmament and developed long-range weapons with which they could strike the territory of the other.[72] In August 1957, the Soviets successfully launched the world's first intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM),[242] and in October they launched the first Earth satellite, Sputnik 1.[243]

The launch of Sputnik inaugurated the Space Race. This led to the Apollo Moon landings by the United States, which astronaut Frank Borman later described as "just a battle in the Cold War."[244] The public's reaction in the Soviet Union was mixed. The Soviet government limited the release of information about the lunar landing, which affected the reaction. A portion of the populace did not give it any attention, and another portion was angered by it.[245] A major Cold War element of the Space Race was satellite reconnaissance, as well as signals intelligence to gauge which aspects of the space programs had military capabilities.[246]

Later, however, the US and USSR pursued some cooperation in space as part of détente, such as Apollo–Soyuz.[247]

Aftermath of the Cuban Revolution

Che Guevara (left) and Fidel Castro (right) in 1961

In Cuba, the 26th of July Movement, led by young revolutionaries Fidel Castro and Che Guevara, seized power in the Cuban Revolution on 1 January 1959, toppling President Fulgencio Batista, whose unpopular regime had been denied arms by the Eisenhower administration.[248] Although Fidel Castro's first refused to categorize his new government as socialist and repeatedly denying being a communist, Castro appointed Marxists to senior government and military positions. Most significantly, Che Guevara became Governor of the Central Bank and then Minister of Industries.[249]

Diplomatic relations between Cuba and the United States continued for some time after Batista's fall, but President Eisenhower deliberately left the capital to avoid meeting Castro during the latter's trip to Washington, D.C. in April, leaving Vice President Richard Nixon to conduct the meeting in his place.[250] Cuba began negotiating for arms purchases from the Eastern Bloc in March 1960.[251] The same month, Eisenhower gave approval to CIA plans and funding to overthrow Castro.[252]

In January 1961, just prior to leaving office, Eisenhower formally severed relations with the Cuban government. That April, the administration of newly elected American President John F. Kennedy mounted the unsuccessful CIA-organized ship-borne invasion of the island by Cuban exiles at Playa Girón and Playa Larga in Santa Clara Province—a failure that publicly humiliated the United States.[253] Castro responded by publicly embracing Marxism–Leninism, and the Soviet Union pledged to provide further support.[253] In December, the US government began a violent campaign of terrorist attacks against civilians in Cuba, and covert operations and sabotage against the administration, in an attempt to overthrow the Cuban government.[260]

Berlin Crisis of 1961

Soviet and American tanks face each other at Checkpoint Charlie during the Berlin Crisis of 1961

The Berlin Crisis of 1961 was the last major incident in the Cold War regarding the status of Berlin and post–World War II Germany. By the early 1950s, the Soviet approach to restricting emigration movement was emulated by most of the rest of the Eastern Bloc.[261] However, hundreds of thousands of East Germans annually emigrated to free and prosperous West Germany through a "loophole" in the system that existed between East Berlin and West Berlin.[262][263]

The emigration resulted in a massive "brain drain" from East Germany to West Germany of younger educated professionals, such that nearly 20% of East Germany's population had migrated to West Germany by 1961.[264] That June, the Soviet Union issued a new ultimatum demanding the withdrawal of Allied forces from West Berlin.[265] The request was rebuffed, but the United States now limited its security guarantees to West Berlin.[266] On 13 August, East Germany erected a barbed-wire barrier that would eventually be expanded through construction into the Berlin Wall, effectively closing the loophole and preventing its citizens from fleeing to the West.[267]

Cuban Missile Crisis and Khrushchev's ousting

Aerial photograph of a Soviet missile site in Cuba, taken by a US spy aircraft, 1 November 1962

The Kennedy administration continued seeking ways to oust Castro following the Bay of Pigs invasion, experimenting with various ways of covertly facilitating the overthrow of the Cuban government. Significant hopes were pinned on the program of terrorist attacks and other destabilization operations known as Operation Mongoose, that was devised under the Kennedy administration in 1961. Khrushchev learned of the project in February 1962,[268] and preparations to install Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba were undertaken in response.[268]

Alarmed, Kennedy considered various reactions. He ultimately responded to the installation of nuclear missiles in Cuba with a naval blockade, and he presented an ultimatum to the Soviets. Khrushchev backed down from a confrontation, and the Soviet Union removed the missiles in return for a public American pledge not to invade Cuba again as well as a covert deal to remove US missiles from Turkey.[269] Castro later admitted that "I would have agreed to the use of nuclear weapons. ... we took it for granted that it would become a nuclear war anyway, and that we were going to disappear."[270]

The Cuban Missile Crisis (October–November 1962) brought the world closer to nuclear war than ever before.[271] The aftermath led to efforts in the nuclear arms race at nuclear disarmament and improving relations, although the Cold War's first arms control agreement, the Antarctic Treaty, had come into force in 1961.[N]

The compromise embarrassed Khrushchev and the Soviet Union because the withdrawal of US missiles from Italy and Turkey was a secret deal between Kennedy and Khrushchev, and the Soviets were seen as retreating from circumstances that they had started. In 1964, Khrushchev's Kremlin colleagues managed to oust him, but allowed him a peaceful retirement.[272] He was accused of rudeness and incompetence, and John Lewis Gaddis argues that he was also blamed with ruining Soviet agriculture, bringing the world to the brink of nuclear war, and becoming an "international embarrassment" when he authorized construction of the Berlin Wall.[273] According to Dobrynin, the top Soviet leadership took the Cuban outcome as "a blow to its prestige bordering on humiliation".[274][275]

From confrontation to détente (1962–1979)

Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin with U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson at the 1967 Glassboro Summit Conference.
NATO and Warsaw Pact troop strengths in Europe in 1973

In the course of the 1960s and 1970s, Cold War participants struggled to adjust to a new, more complicated pattern of international relations in which the world was no longer divided into two clearly opposed blocs.[120] From the beginning of the post-war period, with American help Western Europe and Japan rapidly recovered from the destruction of World War II and sustained strong economic growth through the 1950s and 1960s, with per capita GDPs approaching those of the United States, while Eastern Bloc economies stagnated.[120][276]

The Vietnam War descended into a quagmire for the United States, leading to a decline in international prestige and economic stability, derailing arms agreements, and provoking domestic unrest. America's withdrawal from the war led it to embrace a policy of détente with both China and the Soviet Union.[277]

In the 1973 oil crisis, Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) cut their petroleum output. This raised oil prices and hurt Western economies, but helped the Soviet Union by generating a huge flow of money from its oil sales.[278]

As a result of the oil crisis, combined with the growing influence of Third World alignments such as OPEC and the Non-Aligned Movement, less powerful countries had more room to assert their independence and often showed themselves resistant to pressure from either superpower.[182] Meanwhile, Moscow was forced to turn its attention inward to deal with the Soviet Union's deep-seated domestic economic problems.[120] During this period, Soviet leaders such as Leonid Brezhnev and Alexei Kosygin embraced the notion of détente.[120]

Vietnam War

US combat operations during the Battle of Ia Drang, South Vietnam, November 1965

Under President John F. Kennedy, US troop levels in Vietnam grew under the Military Assistance Advisory Group program from just under a thousand in 1959 to 16,000 in 1963.[O][P] South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem's heavy-handed crackdown on Buddhist monks in 1963 led the US to endorse a deadly military coup against Diem.[279] The war escalated further in 1964 following the controversial Gulf of Tonkin incident, in which a US destroyer was alleged to have clashed with North Vietnamese fast attack craft. The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution gave President Lyndon B. Johnson broad authorization to increase US military presence, deploying ground combat units for the first time and increasing troop levels to 184,000.[280] Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev responded by reversing Khrushchev's policy of disengagement and increasing aid to the North Vietnamese, hoping to entice the North from its pro-Chinese position. The USSR discouraged further escalation of the war, however, providing just enough military assistance to tie up American forces.[281] From this point, the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN), also known as the North Vietnamese Army (NVA), engaged in more conventional warfare with US and South Vietnamese forces.[282]

The Tet Offensive of 1968 proved to be the turning point of the war. Despite years of American tutelage and aid, the South Vietnamese forces were unable to withstand the communist offensive and the task fell to US forces instead. Tet showed that the end of US involvement was not in sight, increasing domestic skepticism of the war and giving rise to what was referred to as the Vietnam Syndrome, a public aversion to American overseas military involvements. Nonetheless, operations continued to cross international boundaries: bordering areas of Laos and Cambodia were used by North Vietnam as supply routes, and were heavily bombed by US forces.[283]

At the same time, in 1963–1965, American domestic politics saw the triumph of liberalism. According to historian Joseph Crespino:

It has become a staple of twentieth-century historiography that Cold War concerns were at the root of a number of progressive political accomplishments in the postwar period: a high progressive marginal tax rate that helped fund the arms race and contributed to broad income equality; bipartisan support for far-reaching civil rights legislation that transformed politics and society in the American South, which had long given the lie to America's egalitarian ethos; bipartisan support for overturning an explicitly racist immigration system that had been in place since the 1920s; and free health care for the elderly and the poor, a partial fulfillment of one of the unaccomplished goals of the New Deal era. The list could go on.[284]

French withdrawal from NATO military structures

The unity of NATO was breached early in its history, with a crisis occurring during Charles de Gaulle's presidency of France. De Gaulle protested at the strong role of the United States in the organization and what he perceived as a special relationship between the United States and the United Kingdom. In a memorandum sent to President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Prime Minister Harold Macmillan on 17 September 1958, he argued for the creation of a tripartite directorate that would put France on an equal footing with the United States and the United Kingdom, and also for the expansion of NATO's coverage to include geographical areas of interest to France, most notably French Algeria, where France was waging a counter-insurgency and sought NATO assistance.[285] De Gaulle considered the response he received to be unsatisfactory and began the development of an independent French nuclear deterrent. In 1966, he withdrew France from NATO's military structures and expelled NATO troops from French soil.[286]

Finlandization

A manifestation of the Finlandization period: in April 1970, a Finnish stamp was issued in honor of the 100th anniversary of Vladimir Lenin's birth and the Lenin Symposium held in Tampere. The stamp was the first Finnish stamp issued about a foreign person.

Officially claiming to be neutral, Finland lay in the grey zone between the Western countries and the Soviet Union. The YYA Treaty (Finno-Soviet Pact of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance)[287] gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics, which was later used as the term "Finlandization" by the West German press, meaning "to become like Finland". This meant, among other things, the Soviet adaptation spread to the editors of mass media, sparking strong forms of self-control, self-censorship (which included the banning of anti-Soviet books[288][289]) and pro-Soviet attitudes. Most of the elite of media and politics shifted their attitudes to match the values that the Soviets were thought to favor and approve. Only after the ascent of Mikhail Gorbachev to Soviet leadership in 1985 did mass media in Finland gradually begin to criticise the Soviet Union more. When the Soviet Union allowed non-communist governments to take power in Eastern Europe, Gorbachev suggested they could look to Finland as an example to follow.[290]

For West German conservative politicians, especially the Bavarian Prime Minister Franz Josef Strauss, the case of Finlandization served as a warning, for example, about how a great power dictates its much smaller neighbor in its internal affairs and the neighbor's independence becomes formal. During the Cold War, Finlandization was seen not only in Bavaria but also in Western intelligence services as a threat that completely free states had to be warned about in advance. To combat Finlandization, propaganda books and newspaper articles were published through CIA-funded research institutes and media companies, which denigrated Finnish neutrality policy and its pro-Soviet President Urho Kekkonen;[291] this was one factor in making room for the East-West espionage on Finnish soil between the two great powers.[291][292][293][294]

However, Finland maintained capitalism unlike most other countries bordering the Soviet Union. Even though being a neighbor to the Soviet Union sometimes resulted in overcautious concern in foreign policy, Finland developed closer co-operation with the other Nordic countries and declared itself even more neutral in superpower politics, although in the later years, support for capitalism was even more widespread.[295]

Invasion of Czechoslovakia

The invasion of Czechoslovakia by the Soviet Union in 1968 was one of the biggest military operations on European soil since World War II.

In 1968, a period of political liberalization took place in Czechoslovakia called the Prague Spring. An "Action Program" of reforms included increasing freedom of the press, freedom of speech and freedom of movement, along with an economic emphasis on consumer goods, the possibility of a multiparty government, limitations on the power of the secret police,[Q][296] and potential withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact.[297]

In answer to the Prague Spring, on 20 August 1968, the Soviet Army, together with most of their Warsaw Pact allies, invaded Czechoslovakia.[298] The invasion was followed by a wave of emigration, including an estimated 70,000 Czechs and Slovaks initially fleeing, with the total eventually reaching 300,000.[299][300] The invasion sparked intense protests from Yugoslavia, Romania, China, and from Western European countries.[301]

Brezhnev Doctrine

In September 1968, during a speech at the Fifth Congress of the Polish United Workers' Party one month after the invasion of Czechoslovakia, Brezhnev outlined the Brezhnev Doctrine, in which he claimed the right to violate the sovereignty of any country attempting to replace Marxism–Leninism with capitalism. During the speech, Brezhnev stated:[297]

When forces that are hostile to socialism try to turn the development of some socialist country towards capitalism, it becomes not only a problem of the country concerned but a common problem and concern of all socialist countries.

The doctrine found its origins in the failures of Marxism–Leninism in states like Poland, Hungary and East Germany, which were facing a declining standard of living contrasting with the prosperity of West Germany and the rest of Western Europe.[302]

Third World escalations

Under the Lyndon B. Johnson administration, the US took a more hardline stance on Latin America—sometimes called the "Mann Doctrine".[303] In 1964, the Brazilian military overthrew the government of João Goulart with US backing.[304] In April 1965, the US sent 22,000 troops to the Dominican Republic in an intervention, into the Dominican Civil War between supporters of deposed president Juan Bosch and supporters of General Elías Wessin y Wessin, citing the threat of the emergence of a Cuban-style revolution in Latin America. The OAS deployed soldiers through the mostly Brazilian Inter-American Peace Force.[305] Héctor García-Godoy acted as provisional president, until conservative former president Joaquín Balaguer won the 1966 presidential election against non-campaigning Juan Bosch.[306] Activists for Bosch's Dominican Revolutionary Party were violently harassed by the Dominican police and armed forces.[306]

Suharto of Indonesia attending funeral of five generals slain in 30 September Movement, 2 October 1965

In Indonesia, the hardline anti-communist General Suharto wrested control from predecessor Sukarno in an attempt to establish a "New Order". From 1965 to 1966, with the aid of the US and other Western governments,[307][308][309][310][311] the military led the mass killing of more than 500,000 members and sympathizers of the Indonesian Communist Party and other leftist organizations, and detained hundreds of thousands in prison camps under inhumane conditions.[312][313] A top-secret CIA report stated that the massacres "rank as one of the worst mass murders of the 20th century, along with the Soviet purges of the 1930s, the Nazi mass murders during the Second World War, and the Maoist bloodbath of the early 1950s."[313] These killings served US interests and constitute a major turning point in the Cold War as the balance of power shifted in Southeast Asia.[314][315]

Escalating the scale of American intervention in the conflict between Ngô Đình Diệm's South Vietnamese government and the communist National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF) insurgents opposing it, Johnson deployed 575,000 troops in Southeast Asia to defeat the NLF and their North Vietnamese allies in the Vietnam War, but his costly policy weakened the US economy and sparked domestic anti-war protests, which led to the US withdrawal by 1972. Without American support, South Vietnam was conquered by North Vietnam in 1975; the US reputation suffered as the world saw the defeat of a superpower at the hands of one of the poorest nations.[111]

Egyptian leader Anwar Sadat with Henry Kissinger in 1975

The Middle East remained a source of contention. Egypt, which received the bulk of its arms and economic assistance from the USSR, was a troublesome client, with a reluctant Soviet Union feeling obliged to assist in the 1967 Six-Day War and the War of Attrition against pro-Western Israel.[316] Despite the beginning of an Egyptian shift from a pro-Soviet to a pro-American orientation in 1972, the Soviets supported Egypt and Syria during the Yom Kippur War, as the US supported Israel.[317][318] Although pre-Sadat Egypt had been the largest recipient of Soviet aid in the Middle East, the Soviets were successful in establishing close relations with communist South Yemen, as well as the nationalist governments of Algeria and Iraq.[317] Iraq signed a 15-year Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the Soviet Union in 1972. According to Charles R. H. Tripp, the treaty upset "the US-sponsored security system established as part of the Arab Cold War. It appeared that any enemy of the Baghdad regime was a potential ally of the United States."[319] In response, the US covertly financed Kurdish rebels during the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War; the Kurds were defeated in 1975, leading to the forcible relocation of hundreds of thousands of Kurdish civilians.[319] Indirect Soviet assistance to the Palestinian side of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict included support for Yasser Arafat's Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).[320]

In East Africa, a territorial dispute between Somalia and Ethiopia over the Ogaden region resulted in the Ogaden War. Around June 1977, Somali troops occupied the Ogaden and began advancing inland towards Ethiopian positions in the Ahmar Mountains. Both countries were client states of the Soviet Union; Somalia was led by Marxist military leader Siad Barre, and Ethiopia was controlled by the Derg, a cabal of generals loyal to the pro-Soviet Mengistu Haile Mariam, who had declared the Provisional Military Government of Socialist Ethiopia in 1975.[321] The Soviets initially attempted to exert a moderating influence on both states, but in November 1977 Barre broke off relations with Moscow and expelled his Soviet military advisers.[322] He turned to China and the Safari Club—a group of pro-American intelligence agencies including those of Iran, Egypt, Saudi Arabia—for support.[323][324][R] While declining to take a direct part in hostilities, the Soviet Union did provide the impetus for a successful Ethiopian counteroffensive to expel Somalia from the Ogaden. The counteroffensive was planned at the command level by Soviet advisers and bolstered by the delivery of millions of dollars' of sophisticated Soviet arms.[322] About 11,000 Cuban troops spearheaded the primary effort, after receiving hasty training on the newly delivered Soviet weapons systems by East German instructors.[322]

Chilean leader Augusto Pinochet shaking hands with Henry Kissinger in 1976

In Chile, the Socialist Party candidate Salvador Allende won the presidential election of 1970, thereby becoming the first democratically elected Marxist to become president of a country in the Americas.[325] The CIA targeted Allende for removal and operated to undermine his support domestically, which contributed to unrest culminating in General Augusto Pinochet's 1973 Chilean coup d'état. Pinochet consolidated power as a military dictator, Allende's reforms of the economy were rolled back, and leftist opponents were killed or detained in internment camps under the Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional (DINA). Socialist states—with the exception of China and Romania—broke off relations with Chile.[326] The Pinochet regime would go on to be one of the leading participants in Operation Condor, an international campaign of assassination and state terrorism organized by right-wing military dictatorships in the Southern Cone of South America that was covertly supported by the US government.[327][328][329]

Cuban tank in the streets of Luanda, Angola, 1976

On 24 April 1974, the Carnation Revolution succeeded in ousting Marcelo Caetano and Portugal's right-wing Estado Novo government, sounding the death knell for the Portuguese Empire.[330]Independence was hastily granted to several Portuguese colonies, including Angola, where the disintegration of colonial rule was followed by a civil war.[331]There were three rival militant factions competing for power in Angola: the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), and the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA).[332]While all three had socialist leanings, the MPLA was the only party with close ties to the Soviet Union.[332] Its adherence to the concept of a Soviet one-party state alienated it from the FNLA and UNITA, which began portraying themselves as anti-communist and pro-Western.[332] When the Soviets began supplying the MPLA with arms, the CIA and China offered substantial covert aid to the FNLA and UNITA.[333][334][335] The MPLA eventually requested direct military support from Moscow in the form of ground troops, but the Soviets declined, offering to send advisers but no combat personnel.[333] Cuba was more forthcoming and began amassing troops in Angola to assist the MPLA.[333] By November 1975, there were over a thousand Cuban soldiers in the country.[333] The persistent buildup of Cuban troops and Soviet weapons allowed the MPLA to secure victory and blunt an abortive intervention by Zairean and South African troops, which had deployed in a belated attempt to assist the FNLA and UNITA.[336]

During the Khmer Rouge regime led by Pol Pot, 1.5 to 2 million people died due to the policies of his four-year premiership.

During the Vietnam War, North Vietnam used border areas of Cambodia as military bases, which Cambodian head of state Norodom Sihanouk tolerated in an attempt to preserve Cambodia's neutrality. Following Sihanouk's March 1970 deposition by pro-American general Lon Nol, who ordered the North Vietnamese to leave Cambodia, North Vietnam attempted to overrun Cambodia following negotiations with Nuon Chea, the second-in-command of the Cambodian communists (dubbed the Khmer Rouge) fighting to overthrow the Cambodian government.[337] Sihanouk fled to China with the establishment of the GRUNK in Beijing.[338] American and South Vietnamese forces responded to these actions with a bombing campaign and a ground incursion, which contributed to the violence of the civil war that soon enveloped all of Cambodia.[339] US carpet bombing lasted until 1973, and while it prevented the Khmer Rouge from seizing the capital, it accelerated the collapse of rural society, increased social polarization,[340] and killed tens of thousands.[341]

After taking power and distancing himself from the Vietnamese,[342] pro-China Khmer Rouge leader Pol Pot killed 1.5 to 2 million Cambodians in the Killing Fields, roughly a quarter of the population (commonly labelled the Cambodian genocide).[343][344][345][346] Martin Shaw described these atrocities as "the purest genocide of the Cold War era."[347] Backed by the Kampuchean United Front for National Salvation, an organization of Khmer pro-Soviet Communists and Khmer Rouge defectors, Vietnam invaded Cambodia on 22 December 1978. The invasion succeeded in deposing Pol Pot, but the new state struggled to gain international recognition beyond the Soviet Bloc sphere. Despite the international outcry at Pol Pot regime's gross human rights violations, representatives of the Khmer Rouge were allowed to be seated in the UN General Assembly, with strong support from China, Western powers, and the member countries of ASEAN. Cambodia became bogged down in a guerrilla war led from refugee camps located on the border with Thailand. Following the destruction of the Khmer Rouge, the national reconstruction of Cambodia was hampered, and Vietnam suffered a punitive Chinese attack.[348] Although unable to deter Vietnam from ousting Pol Pot, China demonstrated that its Cold War communist adversary, the Soviet Union, was unable to protect its Vietnamese ally.[349] Former U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger wrote that "China succeeded in exposing the limits of...[Soviet] strategic reach" and speculated that the desire to "compensate for their ineffectuality" contributed to the Soviets' decision to intervene in Afghanistan a year later.[350]

Sino-Soviet split and Nixon-China visit

U.S. President Richard Nixon shakes hands with Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai at Beijing Capital International Airport

As a result of the Sino-Soviet split, tensions along the Chinese–Soviet border reached their peak in 1969. United States President Richard Nixon decided to use the conflict to shift the balance of power towards the West in the Cold War through a policy of rapproachment with China, which began with his 1972 visit to China and culminated in 1979 with the signing of the Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations by President Carter and Chinese President Deng Xiaoping.[351][352]

Nixon, Brezhnev, and détente

Nikolai Podgorny visiting Tampere, Finland on 16 October 1969

Although indirect conflict between Cold War powers continued through the late 1960s and early 1970s, tensions were beginning to ease.[353]

Following the ousting of Khrushchev, another period of collective leadership ensued, consisting of Leonid Brezhnev as general secretary, Alexei Kosygin as Premier and Nikolai Podgorny as Chairman of the Presidium, lasting until Brezhnev established himself in the early 1970s as the preeminent Soviet leader.

Following his visit to China, Nixon met with Soviet leaders, including Brezhnev in Moscow.[354] These Strategic Arms Limitation Talks resulted in two landmark arms control treaties: SALT I, the first comprehensive limitation pact signed by the two superpowers, and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, which banned the development of systems designed to intercept incoming missiles. These aimed to limit the development of costly anti-ballistic missiles and nuclear missiles.[120]

Nixon and Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of "peaceful coexistence" and established the groundbreaking new policy of détente (or cooperation) between the two superpowers. Meanwhile, Brezhnev attempted to revive the Soviet economy, which was declining in part because of heavy military expenditures. The Soviet Union's military budget in the 1970s was gigantic, forming 40–60% of the entire federal budget and accounting to 15% of the USSR's GDP (13% in the 1980s).[355] Between 1972 and 1974, the two sides also agreed to strengthen their economic ties,[111] including agreements for increased trade. As a result of their meetings, détente would replace the hostility of the Cold War and the two countries would live mutually.[356] These developments coincided with Bonn's "Ostpolitik" policy formulated by the West German Chancellor Willy Brandt,[301] an effort to normalize relations between West Germany and Eastern Europe. Other agreements were concluded to stabilize the situation in Europe, culminating in the Helsinki Accords signed at the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe in 1975.[357]

Soviet general secretary Leonid Brezhnev and US President Jimmy Carter sign the SALT II arms limitation treaty in Vienna on 18 June 1979.

The Helsinki Accords, in which the Soviets promised to grant free elections in Europe, has been called a major concession to ensure peace by the Soviets. In practice, the Soviet government significantly curbed the rule of law, civil liberties, protection of law and guarantees of property,[358][359] which were considered examples of "bourgeois morality" by Soviet legal theorists such as Andrey Vyshinsky.[360] The Soviet Union signed legally-binding human rights documents, such as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1973 and the Helsinki Accords in 1975, but they were neither widely known or accessible to people living under Communist rule, nor were they taken seriously by the Communist authorities.[361]: 117  Human rights activists in the Soviet Union were regularly subjected to harassment, repressions and arrests.

The pro-Soviet American business magnate Armand Hammer of Occidental Petroleum often mediated trade relations. Author Daniel Yergin, in his book The Prize, writes that Hammer "ended up as a go-between for five Soviet General Secretaries and seven U.S. Presidents."[362] Hammer had extensive business relationship in the Soviet Union stretching back to the 1920s with Lenin's approval.[363][364] According to Christian Science Monitor in 1980, "although his business dealings with the Soviet Union were cut short when Stalin came to power, he had more or less single-handedly laid the groundwork for the [1980] state of Western trade with the Soviet Union."[363] In 1974, Brezhnev "publicly recognized Hammer's role in facilitating East-West trade." By 1981, according to the New York Times in that year, Hammer was on a "first-name basis with Leonid Brezhnev."[364]

Iranian people protesting against the Pahlavi dynasty, during the Iranian Revolution

Kissinger and Nixon were "realists" who deemphasized idealistic goals like anti-communism or promotion of democracy worldwide because those goals were too expensive in terms of America's economic capabilities.[365][pages needed] Instead of a Cold War they wanted peace, trade and cultural exchanges. They realized that Americans were no longer willing to tax themselves for idealistic foreign policy goals, especially for containment policies that never seemed to produce positive results. Instead, Nixon and Kissinger sought to downsize America's global commitments in proportion to its reduced economic, moral and political power. They rejected "idealism" as impractical and too expensive, and neither man showed much sensitivity to the plight of people living under Communism. Kissinger's realism fell out of fashion as idealism returned to American foreign policy with Carter's moralism emphasizing human rights, and Reagan's rollback strategy aimed at destroying Communism.[366][pages needed]

Late 1970s deterioration of relations

In the 1970s, the KGB, led by Yuri Andropov, continued to persecute distinguished Soviet dissidents, such as Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and Andrei Sakharov, who were criticising the Soviet leadership in harsh terms.[367] Indirect conflict between the superpowers continued through this period of détente in the Third World, particularly during political crises in the Middle East, Chile, Ethiopia, and Angola.[368]

In 1973, Nixon announced his administration was committed to seeking most favored nation trade status with the USSR,[369] which was challenged by Congress in the Jackson-Vanik Amendment.[370] The United States had long linked trade with the Soviet Union to its foreign policy toward the Soviet Union and, especially since the early 1980s, to Soviet human rights policies. The Jackson-Vanik Amendment, which was attached to the 1974 Trade Act, linked the granting of most-favored-nation to the USSR to the right of persecuted Soviet Jews to emigrate. Because the Soviet Union refused the right of emigration to Jewish refuseniks, the ability of the President to apply most-favored nation trade status to the Soviet Union was restricted.[371]

Although President Jimmy Carter tried to place another limit on the arms race with a SALT II agreement in 1979,[372] his efforts were undermined by the other events that year, including the Iranian Revolution and the Nicaraguan Revolution, which both ousted pro-US governments, and his retaliation against the Soviet coup in Afghanistan in December.[111]

New Cold War (1979–1985)

Protest in Amsterdam against the deployment of Pershing II missiles in Europe, 1981

The term new Cold War refers to the period of intensive reawakening of Cold War tensions and conflicts in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Tensions greatly increased between the major powers with both sides becoming more militant.[373] Diggins says, "Reagan went all out to fight the second cold war, by supporting counterinsurgencies in the third world."[374] Cox says, "The intensity of this 'second' Cold War was as great as its duration was short."[375]

Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and end of détente

The Soviet invasion during Operation Storm-333 on 26 December 1979

In April 1978, the communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) seized power in Afghanistan in the Saur Revolution. Within months, opponents of the communist regime launched an uprising in eastern Afghanistan that quickly expanded into a civil war waged by guerrilla mujahideen against government forces countrywide.[376] The Islamic Unity of Afghanistan Mujahideen insurgents received military training and weapons in neighboring Pakistan and China,[377][378] while the Soviet Union sent thousands of military advisers to support the PDPA government.[376] Meanwhile, increasing friction between the competing factions of the PDPA—the dominant Khalq and the more moderate Parcham—resulted in the dismissal of Parchami cabinet members and the arrest of Parchami military officers under the pretext of a Parchami coup. By mid-1979, the United States had started a covert program to assist the mujahideen.[379][380]

In September 1979, Khalqist President Nur Muhammad Taraki was assassinated in a coup within the PDPA orchestrated by fellow Khalq member Hafizullah Amin, who assumed the presidency. Distrusted by the Soviets, Amin was assassinated by Soviet special forces during Operation Storm-333 in December 1979. Afghan forces suffered losses during the Soviet operation; 30 Afghan palace guards and over 300 army guards were killed while another 150 were captured.[381] Two of Amin's sons, an 11-year-old and a 9-year-old, died from shrapnel wounds sustained during the clashes.[382] In the aftermath of the operation, a total of 1,700 Afghan soldiers who surrendered to Soviet forces were taken as prisoners,[383] and the Soviets installed Babrak Karmal, the leader of the PDPA's Parcham faction, as Amin's successor. Veterans of the Soviet Union's Alpha Group have stated that Operation Storm-333 was one of the most successful in the unit's history. Documents released following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the 1990s revealed that the Soviet leadership believed Amin had secret contacts within the American embassy in Kabul and "was capable of reaching an agreement with the United States";[384] however, allegations of Amin colluding with the Americans have been widely discredited.[385][386][387] The PDBA was tasked to fill the vacuum and carried out a purge of Amin supporters. Soviet troops were deployed to put Afghanistan under Soviet control with Karmal in more substantial numbers, although the Soviet government did not expect to do most of the fighting in Afghanistan. As a result, however, the Soviets were now directly involved in what had been a domestic war in Afghanistan.[388]

President Reagan publicizes his support by meeting with Afghan mujahideen leaders in the White House, 1983.

Carter responded to the Soviet invasion by withdrawing the SALT II treaty from ratification, imposing embargoes on grain and technology shipments to the USSR, and demanding a significant increase in military spending, and further announced the boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow, which was joined by 65 other nations.[389][390][391] He described the Soviet incursion as "the most serious threat to the peace since the Second World War".[392]

Reagan and Thatcher

President Reagan with Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher during a working luncheon at Camp David, December 1984
The world map of military alliances in 1980

In January 1977, four years prior to becoming president, Ronald Reagan bluntly stated, in a conversation with Richard V. Allen, his basic expectation in relation to the Cold War. "My idea of American policy toward the Soviet Union is simple, and some would say simplistic," he said. "It is this: We win and they lose. What do you think of that?"[393] In 1980, Ronald Reagan defeated Jimmy Carter in the 1980 presidential election, vowing to increase military spending and confront the Soviets everywhere.[394] Both Reagan and new British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher denounced the Soviet Union and its ideology. Reagan labeled the Soviet Union an "evil empire" and predicted that Communism would be left on the "ash heap of history," while Thatcher inculpated the Soviets as "bent on world dominance."[395] In 1982, Reagan tried to cut off Moscow's access to hard currency by impeding its proposed gas line to Western Europe. It hurt the Soviet economy, but it also caused ill will among American allies in Europe who counted on that revenue. Reagan retreated on this issue.[396][397]

By early 1985, Reagan's anti-communist position had developed into a stance known as the new Reagan Doctrine—which, in addition to containment, formulated an additional right to subvert existing communist governments.[398] Besides continuing Carter's policy of supporting the Islamic opponents of the Soviet Union and the Soviet-backed PDPA government in Afghanistan, the CIA also sought to weaken the Soviet Union itself by promoting Islamism in the majority-Muslim Central Asian Soviet Union.[399][citation not found] Additionally, the CIA encouraged anti-communist Pakistan's ISI to train Muslims from around the world to participate in the jihad against the Soviet Union.[399][citation not found]

Polish Solidarity movement and martial law

Pope John Paul II provided a moral focus for anti-communism; a visit to his native Poland in 1979 stimulated a religious and nationalist resurgence centered on the Solidarity movement trade union that galvanized opposition and may have led to his attempted assassination two years later.[citation needed] In December 1981, Poland's Wojciech Jaruzelski reacted to the crisis by imposing a period of martial law. Reagan imposed economic sanctions on Poland in response.[400] Mikhail Suslov, the Kremlin's top ideologist, advised Soviet leaders not to intervene if Poland fell under the control of Solidarity, for fear it might lead to heavy economic sanctions, resulting in a catastrophe for the Soviet economy.[400]

US and USSR military and economic issues

US and USSR/Russian nuclear weapons stockpiles, 1945–2006

The Soviet Union had built up a military that consumed as much as 25 percent of its gross national product at the expense of consumer goods and investment in civilian sectors.[401] Soviet spending on the arms race and other Cold War commitments both caused and exacerbated deep-seated structural problems in the Soviet system,[402] which experienced at least a decade of economic stagnation during the late Brezhnev years.

Soviet investment in the defense sector was not driven by military necessity but in large part by the interests of the nomenklatura, which was dependent on the sector for their own power and privileges.[403] The Soviet Armed Forces became the largest in the world in terms of the numbers and types of weapons they possessed, in the number of troops in their ranks, and in the sheer size of their military–industrial base.[404] However, the quantitative advantages held by the Soviet military often concealed areas where the Eastern Bloc dramatically lagged behind the West.[405] For example, the Persian Gulf War demonstrated how the armor, fire control systems, and firing range of the Soviet Union's most common main battle tank, the T-72, were drastically inferior to the American M1 Abrams, yet the USSR fielded almost three times as many T-72s as the US deployed M1s.[406]

Delta 183 launch vehicle lifts off, carrying the Strategic Defense Initiative sensor experiment "Delta Star".

By the early 1980s, the USSR had built up a military arsenal and army surpassing that of the United States. Soon after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, President Carter began massively building up the United States military. This buildup was accelerated by the Reagan administration, which increased the military spending from 5.3 percent of GNP in 1981 to 6.5 percent in 1986,[407] the largest peacetime defense buildup in United States history.[408] The American-Soviet tensions present during 1983 was defined by some as the start of "Cold War II". Whilst in retrospective this phase of the Cold War was generally defined as a "war of words",[409] the Soviet's "peace offensive" was largely rejected by the West.[410]

Tensions continued to intensify as Reagan revived the B-1 Lancer program, which had been canceled by the Carter administration, produced LGM-118 Peacekeeper missiles,[411] installed US cruise missiles in Europe, and announced the experimental Strategic Defense Initiative, dubbed "Star Wars" by the media, a defense program to shoot down missiles in mid-flight.[citation needed] The Soviets deployed RSD-10 Pioneer ballistic missiles targeting Western Europe, and NATO decided, under the impetus of the Carter presidency, to deploy MGM-31 Pershing and cruise missiles in Europe, primarily West Germany.[412] This deployment placed missiles just 10 minutes' striking distance from Moscow.[413]

After Reagan's military buildup, the Soviet Union did not respond by further building its military,[414] because the enormous military expenses, along with inefficient planned manufacturing and collectivized agriculture, were already a heavy burden for the Soviet economy.[415] At the same time, Saudi Arabia increased oil production,[416] even as other non-OPEC nations were increasing production.[S] These developments contributed to the 1980s oil glut, which affected the Soviet Union as oil was the main source of Soviet export revenues.[401] Issues with command economics,[417] oil price decreases and large military expenditures gradually brought the Soviet economy to stagnation.[416]

After ten-year-old American Samantha Smith wrote a letter to Yuri Andropov expressing her fear of nuclear war, Andropov invited Smith to the Soviet Union.

On 1 September 1983, the Soviet Union shot down Korean Air Lines Flight 007, a Boeing 747 with 269 people aboard, including sitting Congressman Larry McDonald, an action which Reagan characterized as a massacre. The airliner was en route from Anchorage to Seoul but owing to a navigational mistake made by the crew, it drifted from its original planned route and flew through Russian prohibited airspace past the west coast of Sakhalin Island near Moneron Island. The Soviet Air Force treated the unidentified aircraft as an intruding U.S. spy plane and destroyed it with air-to-air missiles. The Soviet Union found the wreckage under the sea two weeks later on 15 September and found the flight recorders in October, but this information was kept secret by the Soviet authorities until after the country's collapse.[418] The incident increased support for military deployment, overseen by Reagan, which stood in place until the later accords between Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev.[419] During the early hours of 26 September 1983, the 1983 Soviet nuclear false alarm incident occurred; systems in Serpukhov-15 underwent a glitch that claimed several intercontinental ballistic missiles were heading towards Russia, but officer Stanislav Petrov correctly suspected it was a false alarm, ensuring the Soviets did not respond to the non-existent attack.[420] As such, he has been credited as "the man who saved the world".[421] The Able Archer 83 exercise in November 1983, a realistic simulation of a coordinated NATO nuclear release, was perhaps the most dangerous moment since the Cuban Missile Crisis, as the Soviet leadership feared that a nuclear attack might be imminent.[422]

American domestic public concerns about intervening in foreign conflicts persisted from the end of the Vietnam War.[423] The Reagan administration emphasized the use of quick, low-cost counterinsurgency tactics to intervene in foreign conflicts.[423] In 1983, the Reagan administration intervened in the multisided Lebanese Civil War, invaded Grenada, bombed Libya and backed the Central American Contras, anti-communist paramilitaries seeking to overthrow the Soviet-aligned Sandinista government in Nicaragua.[182] While Reagan's interventions against Grenada and Libya were popular in the United States, his backing of the Contra rebels was mired in controversy.[424] The Reagan administration's backing of the military government of Guatemala during the Guatemalan Civil War, in particular the regime of Efraín Ríos Montt, was also controversial.[425]

Meanwhile, the Soviets incurred high costs for their own foreign interventions. Although Brezhnev was convinced in 1979 that the Soviet war in Afghanistan would be brief, Muslim guerrillas, aided by the US, China, Britain, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan,[378] waged a fierce resistance against the invasion.[426] The Kremlin sent nearly 100,000 troops to support its puppet regime in Afghanistan, leading many outside observers to dub the war "the Soviets' Vietnam".[426] However, Moscow's quagmire in Afghanistan was far more disastrous for the Soviets than Vietnam had been for the Americans because the conflict coincided with a period of internal decay and domestic crisis in the Soviet system.

A senior US State Department official predicted such an outcome as early as 1980, positing that the invasion resulted in part from a:

...domestic crisis within the Soviet system. ... It may be that the thermodynamic law of entropy has ... caught up with the Soviet system, which now seems to expend more energy on simply maintaining its equilibrium than on improving itself. We could be seeing a period of foreign movement at a time of internal decay.[427]

Final years (1985–1991)

Gorbachev's reforms

Mikhail Gorbachev in one-to-one discussions with US President Ronald Reagan
Mikhail Gorbachev and Ronald Reagan sign the INF Treaty at the White House, 1987.

By the time the comparatively youthful Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secretary in 1985,[395] the Soviet economy was stagnant and faced a sharp fall in foreign currency earnings as a result of the downward slide in oil prices in the 1980s.[428] These issues prompted Gorbachev to investigate measures to revive the ailing state.[428]

An ineffectual start led to the conclusion that deeper structural changes were necessary, and in June 1987 Gorbachev announced an agenda of economic reform called perestroika, or restructuring.[429] Perestroika relaxed the production quota system, allowed cooperative ownership of small businesses and paved the way for foreign investment. These measures were intended to redirect the country's resources from costly Cold War military commitments to more productive areas in the civilian sector.[429]

Despite initial skepticism in the West, the new Soviet leader proved to be committed to reversing the Soviet Union's deteriorating economic condition instead of continuing the arms race with the West.[430] Partly as a way to fight off internal opposition from party cliques to his reforms, Gorbachev simultaneously introduced glasnost, or openness, which increased freedom of the press and the transparency of state institutions.[431] Glasnost was intended to reduce the corruption at the top of the Communist Party and moderate the abuse of power in the Central Committee.[432] Glasnost also enabled increased contact between Soviet citizens and the Western world, particularly with the United States, contributing to the accelerating détente between the two nations.[433]

Thaw in relations

The beginning of the 1990s brought a thaw in relations between the superpowers.

In response to the Kremlin's military and political concessions, Reagan agreed to renew talks on economic issues and the scaling-back of the arms race.[434] The first summit was held in November 1985 in Geneva, Switzerland.[434] At one stage the two men, accompanied only by an interpreter, agreed in principle to reduce each country's nuclear arsenal by 50 percent.[435][citation not found] A second summit was held in October 1986 in Reykjavík, Iceland. Talks went well until the focus shifted to Reagan's proposed Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), which Gorbachev wanted to be eliminated. Reagan refused.[436] The negotiations failed, but the third summit (Washington Summit (1987), 8–10 December 1987) led to a breakthrough with the signing of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF). The INF treaty eliminated all nuclear-armed, ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges between 500 and 5,500 kilometers (310 and 3,420 mi) and their infrastructure.[437]

"Tear down this wall!" speech: Reagan speaking in front of the Brandenburg Gate, 12 June 1987

During 1988, it became apparent to the Soviets that oil and gas subsidies, along with the cost of maintaining massive troops levels, represented a substantial economic drain.[438] In addition, the security advantage of a buffer zone was recognised as irrelevant and the Soviets officially declared that they would no longer intervene in the affairs of satellite states in Central and Eastern Europe.[439] George H. W. Bush and Gorbachev met at the Moscow Summit in May 1988 and the Governors Island Summit in December 1988.

In 1989, Soviet forces withdrew from Afghanistan without achieving their objectives.[440] Later that year, the Berlin Wall, the Inner German border and the Iron Curtain fell. On 3 December 1989, Gorbachev and Bush declared the Cold War over at the Malta Summit. In February 1990, Gorbachev agreed with the US-proposed Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany and signed it on 12 September 1990, paving the way for the German reunification.[438] When the Berlin Wall came down, Gorbachev's "Common European Home" concept began to take shape.[441][442] The two former adversaries were partners in the Gulf War against Iraq (August 1990 – February 1991).[443] During the final summit in Moscow in July 1991, Gorbachev and Bush signed the START I arms control treaty.[444]

Eastern Europe breaks away

Otto von Habsburg, who played a leading role in opening the Iron Curtain
East German leader Erich Honecker lost control in August 1989.

Two developments dominated the decade that followed: the increasingly apparent crumbling of the Soviet Union's economic and political structures, and the patchwork attempts at reforms to reverse that process. Kenneth S. Deffeyes argued in Beyond Oil that the Reagan administration encouraged Saudi Arabia to lower the price of oil to the point where the Soviets could not make a profit selling their oil, and resulted in the depletion of the country's hard currency reserves.[445]

The Pan-European Picnic took place in August 1989 on the Hungarian-Austrian border.

Brezhnev's next two successors, transitional figures with deep roots in his tradition, did not last long. Yuri Andropov was 68 years old and Konstantin Chernenko 72 when they assumed power; both died in less than two years. In an attempt to avoid a third short-lived leader, in 1985, the Soviets turned to the next generation and selected Mikhail Gorbachev. He made significant changes in the economy and party leadership, called perestroika. His policy of glasnost freed public access to information after decades of heavy government censorship. Gorbachev also moved to end the Cold War. In 1988, the USSR abandoned its war in Afghanistan and began to withdraw its forces. In the following year, Gorbachev refused to interfere in the internal affairs of the Soviet satellite states, which paved the way for the Revolutions of 1989. In particular, the standstill of the Soviet Union at the Pan-European Picnic in August 1989 then set a peaceful chain reaction in motion, at the end of which the Eastern Bloc collapsed. With the tearing down of the Berlin Wall and with East and West Germany pursuing re-unification, the Iron Curtain between the West and Soviet-occupied regions came down.[446][447][448]

By 1989, the Soviet alliance system was on the brink of collapse, and, deprived of Soviet military support, the communist leaders of the Warsaw Pact states were losing power.[440] Grassroots organizations, such as Poland's Solidarity movement, rapidly gained ground with strong popular bases.

The Pan-European Picnic in August 1989 in Hungary finally started a peaceful movement that the rulers in the Eastern Bloc could not stop. It was the largest movement of refugees from East Germany since the Berlin Wall was built in 1961 and ultimately brought about the fall of the Iron Curtain. The patrons of the picnic, Otto von Habsburg and the Hungarian Minister of State Imre Pozsgay, saw the planned event as an opportunity to test Mikhail Gorbachev's reaction. The Austrian branch of the Paneuropean Union, which was then headed by Karl von Habsburg, distributed thousands of brochures inviting the GDR holidaymakers in Hungary to a picnic near the border at Sopron. But with the mass exodus at the Pan-European Picnic the subsequent hesitant behavior of the ruling Socialist Unity Party of East Germany and the non-interference of the Soviet Union broke the dams. Now tens of thousands of media-informed East Germans made their way to Hungary, which was no longer willing to keep its borders completely closed or to oblige its border troops to use armed force. On the one hand, this caused disagreement among the Eastern European states and, on the other hand, it was clear to the Eastern European population that the governments no longer had absolute power.[446][447][448][449]

In 1989, the communist governments in Poland and Hungary became the first to negotiate the organization of competitive elections. In Czechoslovakia and East Germany, mass protests unseated entrenched communist leaders. The communist regimes in Bulgaria and Romania also crumbled, in the latter case as the result of a violent uprising. Attitudes had changed enough that US Secretary of State James Baker suggested that the American government would not be opposed to Soviet intervention in Romania, on behalf of the opposition, to prevent bloodshed.[450]

The tidal wave of change culminated with the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, which symbolized the collapse of European communist governments and graphically ended the Iron Curtain divide of Europe. The 1989 revolutionary wave swept across Central and Eastern Europe and peacefully overthrew all of the Soviet-style Marxist–Leninist states: East Germany, Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria;[451] Romania was the only Eastern-bloc country to topple its communist regime violently and execute its head of state.[452]

Soviet dissolution

August Coup in Moscow, 1991

At the same time, the Soviet republics started legal moves towards potentially declaring sovereignty over their territories, citing the freedom to secede in Article 72 of the USSR constitution.[453] On 7 April 1990, a law was passed allowing a republic to secede if more than two-thirds of its residents voted for it in a referendum.[454] Many held their first free elections in the Soviet era for their own national legislatures in 1990. Many of these legislatures proceeded to produce legislation contradicting the Union laws in what was known as the 'War of Laws'. In 1989, the Russian SFSR convened a newly elected Congress of People's Deputies. Boris Yeltsin was elected its chairman. On 12 June 1990, the Congress declared Russia's sovereignty over its territory and proceeded to pass laws that attempted to supersede some of the Soviet laws. After a landslide victory of Sąjūdis in Lithuania, that country declared its independence restored on 11 March 1990, citing the illegality of the Soviet occupation of the Baltic states. Soviet forces attempted to halt the secession by crushing popular demonstrations in Lithuania (Bloody Sunday) and Latvia (The Barricades), as a result, numerous civilians were killed or wounded. However, these actions only bolstered international support for the secessionists.[455]

T-80 tank on Red Square during the August Coup

A referendum for the preservation of the USSR was held on 17 March 1991 in nine republics (the remainder having boycotted the vote), with the majority of the population in those republics voting for preservation of the Union in the form of a new federation. The referendum gave Gorbachev a minor boost. In the summer of 1991, the New Union Treaty, which would have turned the country into a much looser Union, was agreed upon by eight republics. The signing of the treaty, however, was interrupted by the August Coup—an attempted coup d'état by hardline members of the government and the KGB who sought to reverse Gorbachev's reforms and reassert the central government's control over the republics. After the coup collapsed, Russian president Yeltsin was seen as a hero for his decisive actions, while Gorbachev's power was effectively ended. The balance of power tipped significantly towards the republics. In August 1991, Latvia and Estonia immediately declared the restoration of their full independence (following Lithuania's 1990 example). Gorbachev resigned as general secretary in late August, and soon afterwards, the party's activities were indefinitely suspended—effectively ending its rule. By the fall, Gorbachev could no longer influence events outside Moscow, and he was being challenged even there by Yeltsin, who had been elected President of Russia in July 1991.

The human chain in Lithuania during the Baltic Way, 23 August 1989

Later in August, Gorbachev resigned as general secretary of the Communist party, and Russian President Boris Yeltsin ordered the seizure of Soviet property. Gorbachev clung to power as the President of the Soviet Union until 25 December 1991, when the USSR dissolved.[456] Fifteen states emerged from the Soviet Union, with by far the largest and most populous one (which also was the founder of the Soviet state with the October Revolution in Petrograd), the Russian Federation, taking full responsibility for all the rights and obligations of the USSR under the Charter of the United Nations, including the financial obligations. As such, Russia assumed the Soviet Union's UN membership and permanent membership on the Security Council, nuclear stockpile and the control over the armed forces; Soviet embassies abroad became Russian embassies.[13]

In his 1992 State of the Union Address, US President George H. W. Bush expressed his emotions: "The biggest thing that has happened in the world in my life, in our lives, is this: By the grace of God, America won the Cold War."[457] Bush and Yeltsin met in February 1992, declaring a new era of "friendship and partnership".[458] In January 1993, Bush and Yeltsin agreed to START II, which provided for further nuclear arms reductions on top of the original START treaty.[459]

The first Russian McDonald's on Moscow's Pushkin Square, pictured in 1991

Aftermath

Changes in national boundaries after the end of the Cold War

In summing up the international ramifications of these events, Vladislav Zubok stated: 'The collapse of the Soviet empire was an event of epochal geopolitical, military, ideological, and economic significance.'[460]

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia drastically cut military spending, and restructuring the economy left millions unemployed.[461] According to Western analysis, the neoliberal reforms in Russia culminated in a recession in the early 1990s more severe than the Great Depression as experienced by the United States and Germany.[462] Western analysts suggest that in the 25 years following the end of the Cold War, only five or six of the post-communist states are on a path to joining the rich and capitalist world while most are falling behind, some to such an extent that it will take several decades to catch up to where they were before the collapse of communism.[463][464]

Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania consider themselves as revivals of the three independent countries that existed prior to their occupation and annexation by the Soviet Union in 1940. They maintain that the process by which they were incorporated into the Soviet Union violated both international law and their own law, and that in 1990–1991 they were reasserting an independence that still legally existed.

Communist parties outside the Baltic states were not outlawed and their members were not prosecuted. Just a few places attempted to exclude members of communist secret services from decision-making. In some countries, the communist party changed its name and continued to function.[465]

Decommunization

Stephen Holmes of the University of Chicago argued in 1996 that decommunization, after a brief active period, quickly ended in near-universal failure. After the introduction of lustration, demand for scapegoats has become relatively low, and former communists have been elected for high governmental and other administrative positions. Holmes notes that the only real exception was former East Germany, where thousands of former Stasi informers have been fired from public positions.[466]

Holmes suggests the following reasons for the failure of decommunization:[466]

  • After 45–70 years of communist rule, nearly every family has members associated with the state. After the initial desire "to root out the reds" came a realization that massive punishment is wrong and finding only some guilty is hardly justice.
  • The urgency of the current economic problems of postcommunism makes the crimes of the communist past "old news" for many citizens.
  • Decommunization is believed to be a power game of elites.
  • The difficulty of dislodging the social elite makes it require a totalitarian state to disenfranchise the "enemies of the people" quickly and efficiently and a desire for normalcy overcomes the desire for punitive justice.
  • Very few people have a perfectly clean slate and so are available to fill the positions that require significant expertise.

Compared with the decommunization efforts of the other former constituents of the Eastern Bloc and the Soviet Union, decommunization in Russia has been restricted to half-measures, if conducted at all.[467] Notable anti-communist measures in the Russian Federation include the banning of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (and the creation of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation) as well as changing the names of some Russian cities back to what they were before the 1917 October Revolution (Leningrad to Saint Petersburg, Sverdlovsk to Yekaterinburg and Gorky to Nizhny Novgorod),[468] though others were maintained, with Ulyanovsk (former Simbirsk), Tolyatti (former Stavropol) and Kirov (former Vyatka) being examples. Even though Leningrad and Sverdlovsk were renamed, regions that were named after them are still officially called Leningrad and Sverdlovsk oblasts.

The Spasskaya Tower had kept its red star and did not restore the two-headed eagle present before communist takeover.

Nostalgia for the Soviet Union is gradually on the rise in Russia.[469] Communist symbols continue to form an important part of the rhetoric used in state-controlled media, as banning on them in other countries is seen by the Russian foreign ministry as "sacrilege" and "a perverse idea of good and evil".[468] The process of decommunization in Ukraine, a neighbouring post-Soviet state, was met with fierce criticism by Russia,[468] who regularly dismisses Soviet war crimes.[470] The State Anthem of the Russian Federation, adopted in 2000 (the same year Vladimir Putin began his first term as president of Russia), uses the exact same music as the State Anthem of the Soviet Union, but with new lyrics written by Sergey Mikhalkov.

Conversely, decommunization in Ukraine started during and after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991[471] With the success of the Revolution of Dignity in 2014, the Ukrainian government approved laws that outlawed communist symbols.[472]

On 15 May 2015, President of Ukraine Petro Poroshenko signed a set of laws that started a six-month period for the removal of communist monuments (excluding World War II monuments) and renaming of public places named after communist-related themes.[473][474] At the time, this meant that 22 cities and 44 villages were set to get new names.[475] Until 21 November 2015, municipal governments had the authority to implement this;[476] if they failed to do so, the Oblasts of Ukraine had until 21 May 2016 to change the names.[476] If after that date the settlement had retained its old name, the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine would wield authority to assign a new name to the settlement.[476] In 2016, 51,493 streets and 987 cities and villages were renamed, and 1,320 Lenin monuments and 1,069 monuments to other communist figures removed.[477] Violation of the law carries a penalty of a potential media ban and prison sentences of up to five years.[478][479]

On 24 July 2015, the Ministry of the Interior stripped the Communist Party of Ukraine, the Communist Party of Ukraine (renewed), and the Communist Party of Workers and Peasants of their right to participate in elections and stated it was continuing the court actions that started in July 2014 to end the registration of communist parties in Ukraine.[480] By 16 December 2015, these three parties had been banned in Ukraine; the Communist Party of Ukraine appealed the ban to the European Court of Human Rights.[481][482][483]

Influence

The Cold War continues to influence world affairs. The post-Cold War world is considered to be unipolar, with the United States the sole remaining superpower.[T][484] The Cold War defined the political role of the United States after World War II—by 1989 the United States had military alliances with 50 countries, with 526,000 troops stationed abroad,[485] with 326,000 in Europe (two-thirds of which were in West Germany)[486] and 130,000 in Asia (mainly Japan and South Korea).[485] The Cold War also marked the zenith of peacetime military–industrial complexes, especially in the Soviet Union and the United States, and large-scale military funding of science.[487] These complexes, though their origins may be found as early as the 19th century, snowballed considerably during the Cold War.[488]

Since the end of the Cold War, the EU has expanded eastwards into the former Warsaw Pact and parts of the former Soviet Union.

Cumulative US military expenditures throughout the entire Cold War amounted to an estimated $8 trillion. Further nearly 100,000 Americans died in the Korean and Vietnam Wars.[489] Although Soviet casualties are difficult to estimate, as a share of gross national product the financial cost for the Soviet Union was much higher than that incurred by the United States.[490]

In addition to the loss of life by uniformed soldiers, millions died in the superpowers' proxy wars around the globe, most notably in eastern Asia.[491][492] Most of the proxy wars and subsidies for local conflicts ended along with the Cold War; interstate wars, ethnic wars, revolutionary wars, as well as refugee and displaced persons crises have declined sharply in the post-Cold War years.[U]

However, the aftermath of the Cold War is not considered to be concluded. Many of the economic and social tensions that were exploited to fuel Cold War competition in parts of the Third World remain acute. The breakdown of state control in a number of areas formerly ruled by communist governments produced new civil and ethnic conflicts, particularly in the former Yugoslavia. In Central and Eastern Europe, the end of the Cold War has ushered in an era of economic growth and an increase in the number of liberal democracies, while in other parts of the world, such as Afghanistan, independence was accompanied by state failure.[373]

During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union invested heavily in propaganda designed to influence people around the world, especially using motion pictures.[493][page needed] The Cold War endures as a popular topic reflected in entertainment media, and continuing to the present with post-1991 Cold War-themed feature films, novels, television and web series, and other media. In 2013, a KGB-sleeper-agents-living-next-door action drama series, The Americans, set in the early 1980s, was ranked No. 6 on the Metacritic annual Best New TV Shows list; its six-season run concluded in May 2018.[494][495]

Historiography

As soon as the term "Cold War" was popularized to refer to post-war tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union, interpreting the course and origins of the conflict has been a source of heated controversy among historians, political scientists, and journalists.[496] In particular, historians have sharply disagreed as to who was responsible for the breakdown of Soviet–US relations after the Second World War; and whether the conflict between the two superpowers was inevitable or could have been avoided.[497] Historians have also disagreed on what exactly the Cold War was, what the sources of the conflict were, and how to disentangle patterns of action and reaction between the two sides.[373]

Although explanations of the origins of the conflict in academic discussions are complex and diverse, several general schools of thought on the subject can be identified. Historians commonly speak of three different approaches to the study of the Cold War: "orthodox" accounts, "revisionism", and "post-revisionism".[487]

"Orthodox" accounts place responsibility for the Cold War on the Soviet Union and its expansion further into Europe.[487] "Revisionist" writers place more responsibility for the breakdown of post-war peace on the United States, citing a range of US efforts to isolate and confront the Soviet Union well before the end of World War II.[487] "Post-revisionists" see the events of the Cold War as more nuanced and attempt to be more balanced in determining what occurred during the Cold War.[487] Much of the historiography on the Cold War weaves together two or even all three of these broad categories.[72]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ Historians do not fully agree on its starting and ending points, but the period is generally considered to span from the announcement of the Truman Doctrine on 12 March 1947 to the dissolution of the Soviet Union on 26 December 1991.[1]
  2. ^ "Where did banana republics get their name?" The Economist, 21 November 2013
  3. ^ Strobe Talbott, The Great Experiment: The Story of Ancient Empires, Modern States, and the Quest for a Global Nation (2009) p. 441 n. 3; Lippmann's own book is Lippmann, Walter (1947). The Cold War. Harper. ISBN 9780598864048.
  4. ^ "Left Communist | Russian political faction". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  5. ^ Max Frankel, "Stalin's Shadow", New York Times 21 Nov 2012 reviewing Anne Applebaum, Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Europe, 1944–1956 (2012), See Introduction, text after note 26, and ch. 3, 7–9
  6. ^ United States Government Printing Office, Report on the Morgenthau Diaries prepared by the Subcommittee of the United States Committee of the Judiciary appointed to investigate the Administration of the McCarran Internal Security Act and other Internal Security Laws, (Washington, 1967) volume 1, pp. 620–621
  7. ^ "South Korea's President Rhee was obsessed with accomplishing early reunification through military means. The Truman administration's fear that Rhee would launch an invasion prompted it to limit South Korea's military capabilities, refusing to provide tanks, heavy artillery, and combat planes. This did not stop the South Koreans from initiating most of the border clashes with North Korean forces at the thirty-eighth parallel beginning in the summer of 1948 and reaching a high level of intensity and violence a year later. Historians now acknowledge that the two Koreas already were waging a civil conflict when North Korea's attack opened the conventional phase of the war.""Revisiting Korea". National Archives. 15 August 2016. Retrieved 21 June 2019.
  8. ^ "Contradicting traditional assumptions, however, available declassified Soviet documents demonstrate that throughout 1949 Stalin consistently refused to approve Kim Il Sung's persistent requests to approve an invasion of South Korea. The Soviet leader believed that North Korea had not achieved either military superiority north of the parallel or political strength south of that line. His main concern was the threat South Korea posed to North Korea's survival, for example fearing an invasion northward following U.S. military withdrawal in June 1949.""Revisiting Korea". National Archives. 15 August 2016. Retrieved 21 June 2019.
  9. ^ "We Will Bury You!", Time magazine, 26 November 1956. Retrieved 26 June 2008.
  10. ^ See also: U.S. Cold War Nuclear Target Lists Declassified for First Time. National Security Archive. 22 December 2015.
  11. ^ "Revolt in Hungary". Archived from the original on 17 November 2007. Narrator: Walter Cronkite, producer: CBS (1956) – Fonds 306, Audiovisual Materials Relating to the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, OSA Archivum, Budapest, Hungary ID number: HU OSA 306-0-1:40
  12. ^ "On This Day 16 June 1989: Hungary reburies fallen hero Imre Nagy" British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) reports on Nagy reburial with full honors. Retrieved 13 October 2006.
  13. ^ 34,374,483 square kilometres (13,272,062 sq mi).
  14. ^ National Research Council Committee on Antarctic Policy and Science, p. 33
  15. ^ "Military Advisors in Vietnam: 1963 | JFK Library". www.jfklibrary.org. Retrieved 21 June 2019.
  16. ^ Vietnam War Statistics and Facts 1, 25th Aviation Battalion website.
  17. ^ Ello (ed.), Paul (April 1968). Control Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, "Action Plan of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (Prague, April 1968)" in Dubcek's Blueprint for Freedom: His original documents leading to the invasion of Czechoslovakia. William Kimber & Co. 1968, pp. 32, 54
  18. ^ Miglietta, American Alliance Policy (2002), p. 78. "American military goods were provided by Egypt and Iran, which transferred excess arms from their inventories. It was said that American M-48 tanks sold to Iran were shipped to Somalia via Oman."
  19. ^ "Official Energy Statistics of the US Government", EIA – International Energy Data and Analysis. Retrieved on 4 July 2008.
  20. ^ "Country profile: United States of America". BBC News. Retrieved 11 March 2007
  21. ^ Monty G. Marshall and Ted Gurr, "Peace and Conflict" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 June 2008. Retrieved 1 June 2016., Center for Systemic Peace (2006). Retrieved 14 June 2008. "Peace and Conflict" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 June 2008. Retrieved 1 June 2016.

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175 Shifrinson, J. R. I. (2016). Deal or No Deal? The End of the Cold War and the U.S. Offer to Limit NATO Expansion. International Security, 40(4), 7–44.


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