Американские евреи

Американские евреи

Общая численность населения
7,100,000–7,700,000
Регионы со значительной численностью населения
Нью-Йорк , Нью-Джерси , агломерация Нью-Йорка , Большой Лос-Анджелес , Балтимор-Вашингтон , Чикаго Земля , Сан-Франциско Район залива , Кливленд , Майами , Филадельфии Район , Район Атланты , Район Большого Бостона , Район Сент-Луиса
Соединенные Штаты	7,500,000
Израиль	300,000
Языки
Американский английский идиш Иврит ( современный иврит ) Арамейский ( иудео-арамейский ) фарси Испанский ( ладино ) Французский амхарский Тигринья немецкий Русский Украинский румынский Польский Арабский ( иудео-арабский ) Бербер ( иудео-бербер ) Список еврейских языков и различные другие языки
Религия
Иудаизм (35% реформисты , 18% консерваторы , 11% православные , 6% другие) Светские (30% атеисты, агностики и т. д.)
Родственные этнические группы
Израильские американцы

Американские евреи или американцы-евреи — это американские граждане, которые являются евреями по культуре , этнической принадлежности или религии . Согласно опросу 2020 года, проведенному Pew Research , примерно две трети американских евреев идентифицируют себя как ашкенази , 3% идентифицируют себя как сефарды и 1% идентифицируют себя как мизрахи . Еще 6% идентифицируют себя как некую комбинацию трех категорий.

В колониальную эпоху евреи- сефарды , прибывшие через Португалию, составляли основную часть тогда еще небольшого еврейского населения Америки. Хотя их потомки в настоящее время составляют меньшинство, они представляют собой остаток тех коренных американских евреев наряду с множеством других еврейских общин, включая более поздних евреев-сефардов , евреев-мизрахи , бета-израильско-эфиопских евреев , различные другие еврейские этнические группы , а также меньшее количество обращенных в иудаизм . Американская еврейская община демонстрирует широкий спектр еврейских культурных традиций , охватывающий весь спектр еврейских религиозных обрядов .

В зависимости от религиозных определений и различных данных о населении, в Соединенных Штатах проживает самая большая или вторая по величине еврейская община в мире после Израиля . По состоянию на 2020 год еврейское население Америки оценивается в 7,5 миллионов человек, что составляет 2,4% от общей численности населения США. Сюда входят 4,2 миллиона взрослых, идентифицирующих свою религию как еврейскую, 1,5 миллиона взрослых евреев, не идентифицирующих себя с какой-либо религией, и 1,8 миллиона еврейских детей. По оценкам, до 15 000 000 американцев являются частью «расширенного» американского еврейского населения, что составляет 4,5% от общей численности населения США, включая тех, у кого есть хотя бы один еврейский дедушка и бабушка и которые имеют право на израильское гражданство в соответствии с Законом Возвращаться .

История

Основная статья: История евреев в Соединенных Штатах

Дополнительная информация: Антисемитизм в Соединенных Штатах и ​​​​История антисемитизма в Соединенных Штатах.

Евреи присутствовали в Тринадцати колониях с середины 17 века. Однако их было немного: к 1700 году прибыло от 200 до 300 человек. Эти первые прибывшие были в основном еврейскими иммигрантами-сефардами западно-сефардского (также известного как испанские и португальские евреи ) происхождения. но к 1720 году преобладали евреи-ашкенази из диаспоры Центральной и Восточной Европы.

Впервые Закон об английских плантациях 1740 года позволил евреям стать британскими гражданами и эмигрировать в колонии . Первым известным евреем в истории США был Хаим Саломон , еврей польского происхождения, эмигрировавший в Нью-Йорк и сыгравший важную роль в американской революции. Он был успешным финансистом, который поддерживал патриотическое дело и помог собрать большую часть денег, необходимых для финансирования Американской революции.

Несмотря на то, что некоторым из них было отказано в праве голосовать или занимать должности в местных юрисдикциях, евреи-сефарды стали активно участвовать в общественных делах в 1790-х годах, после того как им было предоставлено политическое равенство в пяти штатах, где они были наиболее многочисленны. Примерно до 1830 года в Чарльстоне, Южная Каролина, проживало больше евреев, чем где-либо еще в Северной Америке . Крупномасштабная еврейская иммиграция началась в 19 веке, когда к середине века прибыло много немецких евреев , мигрировавших в Соединенные Штаты в больших количествах из-за антисемитских законов и ограничений в странах их рождения. В первую очередь они стали купцами и владельцами магазинов. Постепенно первые евреи, прибывшие с восточного побережья, отправились на запад, и осенью 1819 года первые еврейские религиозные службы к западу от Аппалачского хребта были проведены во время больших праздников в Цинциннати , старейшей еврейской общине на Среднем Западе. Постепенно еврейская община Цинциннати приняла новые практики под руководством раввина Исаака Мейера Уайза , отца реформистского иудаизма в Соединенных Штатах. например, включение женщин в миньян . Большая община выросла в регионе с прибытием немецких и литовских евреев во второй половине 1800-х годов, что привело к созданию компании Manischewitz , одного из крупнейших производителей американских кошерных продуктов, базирующегося сейчас в Нью-Джерси , и старейшего постоянно действующего предприятия. издавала еврейскую газету в Соединенных Штатах и ​​второе по возрасту постоянно издающееся издание в мире «Американский израильтянин» , основанное в 1854 году и до сих пор существующее в Цинциннати. К 1880 году в Соединенных Штатах проживало около 250 000 евреев, многие из них были образованными и в основном светскими немецкими евреями, хотя меньшинство старых сефардских еврейских семей оставалось влиятельным.

из Восточной Европы прибывают в Нью-Йорк Еврейские иммигранты

Еврейская миграция в Соединенные Штаты резко возросла в начале 1880-х годов в результате преследований и экономических трудностей в некоторых частях Восточной Европы. Большинство этих новых иммигрантов были евреями-ашкенази, говорящими на идиш , большинство из которых прибыли из бедных диаспор Российской империи и черты оседлости , расположенных на территории современной Польши , Литвы , Белоруссии , Украины и Молдовы . В тот же период большое количество евреев-ашкеназов также прибыло из Галиции , в то время самого бедного региона Австро-Венгерской империи с многочисленным еврейским городским населением, изгнанным главным образом по экономическим причинам. Многие евреи также эмигрировали из Румынии . В период с конца 19 века по 1924 год, когда Закон об иммиграции 1924 года ограничил иммиграцию, сюда прибыло более 2 000 000 евреев. Большинство из них поселились в столичном районе Нью-Йорка , создав крупнейшую в мире концентрацию еврейского населения. В 1915 году тираж ежедневных газет на идиш составлял полмиллиона только в Нью-Йорке и 600 000 по всей стране. Кроме того, еще тысячи человек подписались на многочисленные еженедельники и журналы на идише.

В начале 20-го века эти вновь прибывшие евреи создали сети поддержки, состоящие из множества небольших синагог и Ландсманшафтен (немецкое и идишское название «Объединения земляков») для евреев из одного города или деревни. Американские еврейские писатели того времени призывали к ассимиляции и интеграции в более широкую американскую культуру , и евреи быстро стали частью американской жизни. Примерно 500 000 американских евреев (или половина всех евреев-мужчин в возрасте от 18 до 50 лет) воевали во Второй мировой войне , а после войны молодые семьи присоединились к новой тенденции субурбанизации . Там евреи все больше ассимилировались и демонстрировали рост смешанных браков . Пригороды способствовали формированию новых центров, поскольку набор еврейских школ увеличился более чем вдвое с конца Второй мировой войны до середины 1950-х годов, а количество членов синагог подскочило с 20% в 1930 году до 60% в 1960 году; самый быстрый рост наблюдался в реформистских и особенно консервативных общинах. Более поздние волны еврейской эмиграции из России и других регионов в значительной степени присоединились к основной американской еврейской общине.

Американцы еврейского происхождения на протяжении многих лет добились успеха во многих областях и аспектах. Еврейская община в Америке перестала быть частью низшего класса общества, и для них были запрещены многочисленные занятия. быть группой с высокой концентрацией представителей академических кругов и доходом на душу населения выше, чем в среднем в Соединенных Штатах.

Семейный доход американских евреев - 2014 г.

< 30 000 долларов США	$30,000–49,999	$50,000–99,999	$100,000+
16%	15%	24%	44%

Самоидентификация

Ученые спорят, был ли исторический опыт евреев в Соединенных Штатах настолько уникальным, чтобы подтвердить американскую исключительность .

Корелиц (1996) показывает, как американские евреи в конце 19-го и начале 20-го веков отказались от расового определения еврейства в пользу определения, охватывающего этническую принадлежность. Ключ к пониманию этого перехода от расового самоопределения к культурному или этническому можно найти в «Менора» между 1915 и 1925 годами журнале . взгляды на еврейство как на средство определения евреев в мире, который угрожал подавить и поглотить еврейскую уникальность. Журнал представлял идеалы движения меноры, основанного Хорасом М. Калленом и другими с целью содействия возрождению еврейской культурной идентичности и борьбы с идеей расы как средства определения или идентификации народов.

Сипорин (1990) использует семейный фольклор этнических евреев для их коллективной истории и ее трансформации в историческую форму искусства. Они рассказывают нам, как евреи выжили, будучи изгнанными и преобразованными. Многие нарративы иммигрантов несут в себе тему произвольности судьбы и пониженного положения иммигрантов в новой культуре. Напротив, этнические семейные повествования, как правило, показывают, что этническая принадлежность в большей степени отвечает за его жизнь и, возможно, находится под угрозой полной потери своего еврейства. Некоторые истории показывают, как член семьи успешно разрешил конфликт между этнической и американской идентичностями.

После 1960 года воспоминания о Холокосте и Шестидневной войне 1967 года оказали большое влияние на формирование еврейской этнической идентичности . Некоторые утверждают, что Холокост подчеркнул для евреев важность их этнической идентичности в то время, когда другие меньшинства отстаивали свою собственную.

Политика

Основная статья: Еврейские взгляды и участие в политике США

Евреи голосуют за Демократическую партию на президентских выборах с 1916 года.

Выборы год	Кандидат Демократическая партия	% из Еврейское голосование за Демократическая партия	Результат Демократическая партия
1916	Вудро Вильсон	55	Выиграл
1920	Джеймс М. Кокс	19	Потерянный
1924	Джон В. Дэвис	51	Потерянный
1928	Эл Смит	72	Потерянный
1932	Франклин Д. Рузвельт	82	Выиграл
1936		85	Выиграл
1940		90	Выиграл
1944		90	Выиграл
1948	Гарри Трумэн	75	Выиграл
1952	Адлай Стивенсон	64	Потерянный
1956		60	Потерянный
1960	Джон Ф. Кеннеди	82	Выиграл
1964	Линдон Б. Джонсон	90	Выиграл
1968	Хьюберт Хамфри	81	Потерянный
1972	Джордж Макговерн	65	Потерянный
1976	Джимми Картер	71	Выиграл
1980		45	Потерянный
1984	Уолтер Мондейл	67	Потерянный
1988	Майкл Дукакис	64	Потерянный
1992	Билл Клинтон	80	Выиграл
1996		78	Выиграл
2000	Эл Гор	79	Потерянный
2004	Джон Керри	76	Потерянный
2008	Barack Obama	78	Выиграл
2012		69	Выиграл
2016	Hillary Clinton	71	Потерянный
2020	Джо Байден	69	Выиграл

Евреи голосуют за Республиканскую партию на президентских выборах с 1916 года.

Выборы год	Кандидат Республиканская партия	% из Еврейское голосование за Республиканская партия	Результат Республиканская партия
1916	Чарльз Э. Хьюз	45	Потерянный
1920	Уоррен Дж. Хардинг	43	Выиграл
1924	Кэлвин Кулидж	27	Выиграл
1928	Герберт Гувер	28	Выиграл
1932		18	Потерянный
1936	Альф Лэндон	15	Потерянный
1940	Венделл Уилки	10	Потерянный
1944	Томас Дьюи	10	Потерянный
1948		10	Потерянный
1952	Дуайт Д. Эйзенхауэр	36	Выиграл
1956		40	Won
1960	Richard Nixon	18	Lost
1964	Barry Goldwater	10	Lost
1968	Richard Nixon	17	Won
1972		35	Won
1976	Gerald Ford	27	Lost
1980	Ronald Reagan	39	Won
1984		31	Won
1988	George H. W. Bush	35	Won
1992		11	Lost
1996	Bob Dole	16	Lost
2000	George W. Bush	19	Won
2004		24	Won
2008	John McCain	22	Lost
2012	Mitt Romney	30	Lost
2016	Donald Trump	24	Won
2020		30	Lost

In New York City, while the German-Jewish community was well established 'uptown', the more numerous Jews who migrated from Eastern Europe faced tension 'downtown' with Irish and German Catholic neighbors, especially the Irish Catholics who controlled Democratic Party Politics at the time. Jews successfully established themselves in the garment trades and in the needle unions in New York. By the 1930s they were a major political factor in New York, with strong support for the most liberal programs of the New Deal. They continued as a major element of the New Deal Coalition, giving special support to the Civil Rights Movement. By the mid-1960s, however, the Black Power movement caused a growing separation between blacks and Jews, though both groups remained solidly in the Democratic camp.

While earlier Jewish immigrants from Germany tended to be politically conservative, the wave of Jews from Eastern Europe starting in the early 1880s were generally more liberal or left-wing and became the political majority. Many came to America with experience in the socialist, anarchist and communist movements as well as the Labor Bund, emanating from Eastern Europe. Many Jews rose to leadership positions in the early 20th century American labor movement and helped to found unions that played a major role in left-wing politics and, after 1936, in Democratic Party politics.

Although American Jews generally leaned Republican in the second half of the 19th century, the majority has voted Democratic since at least 1916, when they voted 55% for Woodrow Wilson.

With the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt, American Jews voted more solidly Democratic. They voted 90% for Roosevelt in the elections of 1940, and 1944, representing the highest of support, equaled only once since. In the election of 1948, Jewish support for Democrat Harry S. Truman dropped to 75%, with 15% supporting the new Progressive Party. As a result of lobbying, and hoping to better compete for the Jewish vote, both major party platforms had included a pro-Zionist plank since 1944, and supported the creation of a Jewish state; it had little apparent effect however, with 90% still voting other-than-Republican. In every election since, except for 1980, no Democratic presidential candidate has won with less than 67% of the Jewish vote. (In 1980, Carter obtained 45% of the Jewish vote. See below.)

During the 1952 and 1956 elections, Jewish voters cast 60% or more of their votes for Democrat Adlai Stevenson, while General Eisenhower garnered 40% of the Jewish vote for his reelection, the best showing to date for the Republicans since Warren G. Harding's 43% in 1920. In 1960, 83% voted for Democrat John F. Kennedy against Richard Nixon, and in 1964, 90% of American Jews voted for Lyndon Johnson, over his Republican opponent, arch-conservative Barry Goldwater. Hubert Humphrey garnered 81% of the Jewish vote in the 1968 elections in his losing bid for president against Richard Nixon.

During the Nixon re-election campaign of 1972, Jewish voters were apprehensive about George McGovern and only favored the Democrat by 65%, while Nixon more than doubled Republican Jewish support to 35%. In the election of 1976, Jewish voters supported Democrat Jimmy Carter by 71% over incumbent president Gerald Ford's 27%, but during the Carter re-election campaign of 1980, Jewish voters greatly abandoned the Democrat, with only 45% support, while Republican winner Ronald Reagan garnered 39%, and 14% went to independent (former Republican) John Anderson.

During the Reagan re-election campaign of 1984, the Republican retained 31% of the Jewish vote, while 67% voted for Democrat Walter Mondale. The 1988 election saw Jewish voters favor Democrat Michael Dukakis by 64%, while George H. W. Bush polled a respectable 35%, but during Bush's re-election attempt in 1992, his Jewish support dropped to just 11%, with 80% voting for Bill Clinton and 9% going to independent Ross Perot. Clinton's re-election campaign in 1996 maintained high Jewish support at 78%, with 16% supporting Bob Dole and 3% for Perot.

In the 2000 presidential election, Joe Lieberman became the first American Jew to run for national office on a major-party ticket when he was chosen as Democratic presidential candidate Al Gore's vice-presidential nominee. The elections of 2000 and 2004 saw continued Jewish support for Democrats Al Gore and John Kerry, a Catholic, remain in the high- to mid-70% range, while Republican George W. Bush's re-election in 2004 saw Jewish support rise from 19% to 24%.

In the 2008 presidential election, 78% of Jews voted for Barack Obama, who became the first African American to be elected president. Additionally, 83% of white Jews voted for Obama compared to just 34% of white Protestants and 47% of white Catholics, though 67% of those identifying with another religion and 71% identifying with no religion also voted Obama.

In the February 2016 New Hampshire Democratic Primary, Bernie Sanders became the first Jewish candidate to win a state's presidential primary election.

For congressional and senate races, since 1968, American Jews have voted about 70–80% for Democrats; this support increased to 87% for Democratic House candidates during the 2006 elections.

David Levy Yulee

The first American Jew to serve in the Senate was David Levy Yulee, who was Florida's first Senator, serving 1845–1851 and again 1855–1861.

There were 19 Jews among the 435 U.S. Representatives at the start of the 112th Congress; 26 Democrats and 1 (Eric Cantor) Republican. While many of these Members represented coastal cities and suburbs with significant Jewish populations, others did not (for instance, Kim Schrier of Seattle, Washington; John Yarmuth of Louisville, Kentucky; and David Kustoff and Steve Cohen of Memphis, Tennessee). The total number of Jews serving in the House of Representatives declined from 31 in the 111th Congress. John Adler of New Jersey, Steve Kagan of Wisconsin, Alan Grayson of Florida, and Ron Klein of Florida all lost their re-election bids, Rahm Emanuel resigned to become the President's Chief of Staff; and Paul Hodes of New Hampshire did not run for re-election but instead (unsuccessfully) sought his state's open Senate seat. David Cicilline of Rhode Island was the only Jewish American who was newly elected to the 112th Congress; he had been the Mayor of Providence. The number declined when Jane Harman, Anthony Weiner, and Gabby Giffords resigned during the 112th Congress.

As of January 2014, there were five openly gay men serving in Congress and two are Jewish: Jared Polis of Colorado and David Cicilline of Rhode Island.

In November 2008, Cantor was elected as the House Minority Whip, the first Jewish Republican to be selected for the position. In 2011, he became the first Jewish House Majority Leader. He served as Majority Leader until 2014, when he resigned shortly after his loss in the Republican primary election for his House seat.

In 2013, Pew found that 70% of American Jews identified with or leaned toward the Democratic Party, with just 22% identifying with or leaning toward the Republican Party.

The 114th Congress included 10 Jews among 100 U.S. Senators: nine Democrats (Michael Bennet, Richard Blumenthal, Brian Schatz, Benjamin Cardin, Dianne Feinstein, Jon Ossoff, Jacky Rosen, Charles Schumer, Ron Wyden), and Bernie Sanders, who became a Democrat to run for President but returned to the Senate as an Independent.

In the 118th Congress, there are 28 Jewish U.S. Representatives. 25 are Democrats and the other 3 are Republicans. All 10 Jewish Senators are Democrats.

Additionally, 6 members of President Joe Biden's cabinet are Jewish (Secretary of State Antony Blinken, Attorney General Merrick Garland, DNI Avril Haines, White House Chief of Staff Ron Klain, Homeland Security Secretary Alejandro Mayorkas, and Treasury Secretary Janet Yellen).

Participation in civil rights movements

See also: Jews in the civil rights movement

Members of the American Jewish community have included prominent participants in civil rights movements. In the mid-20th century, there were American Jews who were among the most active participants in the Civil Rights Movement and feminist movements. A number of American Jews have also been active figures in the struggle for gay rights in America.

Joachim Prinz, president of the American Jewish Congress, stated the following when he spoke from the podium at the Lincoln Memorial during the famous March on Washington on August 28, 1963: "As Jews we bring to this great demonstration, in which thousands of us proudly participate, a twofold experience—one of the spirit and one of our history. ... From our Jewish historic experience of three and a half thousand years we say: Our ancient history began with slavery and the yearning for freedom. During the Middle Ages my people lived for a thousand years in the ghettos of Europe. ... It is for these reasons that it is not merely sympathy and compassion for the black people of America that motivates us. It is, above all and beyond all such sympathies and emotions, a sense of complete identification and solidarity born of our own painful historic experience."

The Holocaust

During the World War II period, the American Jewish community was bitterly and deeply divided and as a result, it was unable to form a united front. Most Jews who had previously emigrated to the United States from Eastern Europe supported Zionism, because they believed that a return to their ancestral homeland was the only solution to the persecution and the genocide which were then occurring across Europe. One important development was the sudden conversion of many American Jewish leaders to Zionism late in the war. The Holocaust was largely ignored by American media as it was happening. Reporters and editors largely did not believe the stories of atrocities which were coming out of Europe.

The Holocaust had a profound impact on the Jewish community in the United States, especially after 1960 as Holocaust education improved, as Jews tried to comprehend what had happened during it, and especially as they tried to commemorate it and grapple with it when they looked to the future. Abraham Joshua Heschel summarized this dilemma when he attempted to understand Auschwitz: "To try to answer is to commit a supreme blasphemy. Israel enables us to bear the agony of Auschwitz without radical despair, to sense a ray [of] God's radiance in the jungles of history."

International affairs

Winston Churchill and Bernard Baruch converse in the back seat of a car in front of Baruch's home.

Zionism became a well-organized movement in the U.S. with the involvement of leaders such as Louis Brandeis and the promise of a reconstituted homeland in the Balfour Declaration. Jewish Americans organized large-scale boycotts of German merchandise during the 1930s to protest Nazi Germany. Franklin D. Roosevelt's leftist domestic policies received strong Jewish support in the 1930s and 1940s, as did his anti-Nazi foreign policy and his promotion of the United Nations. Support for political Zionism in this period, although growing in influence, remained a distinctly minority opinion among Jews in the United States until about 1944–45, when the early rumors and reports of the systematic mass murder of the Jews in Nazi-occupied countries became publicly known with the liberation of the Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps. The founding of the modern State of Israel in 1948 and recognition thereof by the American government (following objections by American isolationists) was an indication of both its intrinsic support and its response to learning the horrors of the Holocaust.

This attention was based on a natural affinity toward and support for Israel in the Jewish community. The attention is also because of the ensuing and unresolved conflicts regarding the founding of Israel and the role for the Zionist movement going forward. A lively internal debate commenced, following the Six-Day War. The American Jewish community was divided over whether or not they agreed with the Israeli response; the great majority came to accept the war as necessary. Similar tensions were aroused by the 1977 election of Menachem Begin and the rise of Revisionist policies, the 1982 Lebanon War and the continuing administrative governance of portions of the West Bank territory. Disagreement over Israel's 1993 acceptance of the Oslo Accords caused a further split among American Jews; this mirrored a similar split among Israelis and led to a parallel rift within the pro-Israel lobby, and even ultimately to the United States for its "blind" support of Israel. Abandoning any pretense of unity, both segments began to develop separate advocacy and lobbying organizations. The liberal supporters of the Oslo Accord worked through Americans for Peace Now (APN), Israel Policy Forum (IPF) and other groups friendly to the Labour government in Israel. They tried to assure Congress that American Jewry was behind the Accord and defended the efforts of the administration to help the fledgling Palestinian Authority (PA), including promises of financial aid. In a battle for public opinion, IPF commissioned a number of polls showing widespread support for Oslo among the community.

In opposition to Oslo, an alliance of conservative groups, such as the Zionist Organization of America (ZOA), Americans For a Safe Israel (AFSI), and the Jewish Institute for National Security Affairs (JINSA) tried to counterbalance the power of the liberal Jews. On October 10, 1993, the opponents of the Palestinian-Israeli accord organized at the American Leadership Conference for a Safe Israel, where they warned that Israel was prostrating itself before "an armed thug", and predicted and that the "thirteenth of September is a date that will live in infamy". Some Zionists also criticized, often in harsh language, Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Shimon Peres, his foreign minister and chief architect of the peace accord. With the community so strongly divided, AIPAC and the Presidents Conference, which was tasked with representing the national Jewish consensus, struggled to keep the increasingly antagonistic discourse civil. Reflecting these tensions, Abraham Foxman from the Anti-Defamation League was asked by the conference to apologize for criticizing ZOA's Morton Klein. The conference, which under its organizational guidelines was in charge of moderating communal discourse, reluctantly censured some Orthodox spokespeople for attacking Colette Avital, the Labor-appointed Israeli Consul General in New York and an ardent supporter of that version of a peace process.

Demographics

Further information: Jews in New York City

Jewish Americans by state according to the American Jewish Yearbook, 2020 and the U.S. Census Bureau

As of 2020, the American Jewish population is, depending on the method of identification, either the largest in the world, or the second-largest in the world (after Israel). Precise population figures vary depending on whether Jews are accounted for based on halakhic considerations, or secular, political and ancestral identification factors. There were about four million adherents of Judaism in the U.S. as of 2001, approximately 1.4% of the US population. According to the Jewish Agency, for the year 2023 Israel was home to 7.2 million Jews (46% of the world's Jewish population), while the United States contained 6.3 million (40.1%).

According to Gallup and Pew Research Center findings, "at maximum 2.2% of the U.S. adult population has some basis for Jewish self-identification." In 2020, it was estimated by demographers Arnold Dashefsky & Ira M. Sheskin in the American Jewish Yearbook that the American Jewish population totaled 7.15 million, making up 2.17% of the country's 329.5 million inhabitants. In the same year, the American Jewish population was estimated at 7.6 million people, accounting for 2.4% of the total US population, by other organization. This includes 4.9 million adults who identify their religion as Jewish, 1.2 million Jewish adults who identify with no religion, and 1.6 million Jewish children.

The American Jewish Yearbook population survey had placed the number of American Jews at 6.4 million, or approximately 2.1% of the total population. This figure is significantly higher than the previous large scale survey estimate, conducted by the 2000–2001 National Jewish Population estimates, which estimated 5.2 million Jews. A 2007 study released by the Steinhardt Social Research Institute (SSRI) at Brandeis University presents evidence to suggest that both these figures may be underestimations with a potential 7.0–7.4 million Americans of Jewish descent. Those higher estimates were however arrived at by including all non-Jewish family members and household members, rather than surveyed individuals. In a 2019 study by Jews of Color Initiative it was found that approximately 12-15% of Jews in the United States, about 1,000,000 of 7,200,000 identify as multiracial and Jews of color.

The population of Americans of Jewish descent is demographically characterized by an aging population composition and low fertility rates significantly below generational replacement.

The National Jewish Population Survey of 1990 asked 4.5 million adult Jews to identify their denomination. The national total showed 38% were affiliated with the Reform tradition, 35% were Conservative, 6% were Orthodox, 1% were Reconstructionists, 10% linked themselves to some other tradition, and 10% said they are "just Jewish." In 2013, Pew Research's Jewish population survey found that 35% of American Jews identified as Reform, 18% as Conservative, 10% as Orthodox, 6% who identified with other sects, and 30% did not identify with a denomination. Pew's 2020 poll found that 37% affiliated with Reform Judaism, 17% with Conservative Judaism, and 9% with Orthodox Judaism. Young Jews are more likely to identify as Orthodox or as unaffiliated compared to older members of the Jewish community.

Many Jews are concentrated in the Northeast, particularly around New York City. Many Jews also live in South Florida, Los Angeles and other large metropolitan areas, like Chicago, San Francisco, or Atlanta. The metropolitan areas of New York City, Los Angeles, and Miami contain nearly one quarter of the world's Jews and the New York City metropolitan area itself contains around a quarter of all Jews living in the United States.

By state

According to a study published by demographers and sociologists Ira M. Sheskin and Arnold Dashefsky in the American Jewish Yearbook, the distribution of the Jewish population in 2020 was as follows:

States and territories	American Jews (2020)	% Jewish
Alabama	10,325	0.21%
Alaska	5,750	0.78%
Arizona	106,300	1.49%
Arkansas	2,225	0.07%
California	1,187,990	3.00%
Colorado	103,020	1.78%
Connecticut	118,350	3.28%
Delaware	15,100	1.53%
District of Columbia	57,300	7.81%
Florida	657,095	3.05%
Georgia	128,720	1.20%
Hawaii	7,100	0.49%
Idaho	2,125	0.12%
Illinois	297,735	2.32%
Indiana	25,145	0.37%
Iowa	5,475	0.17%
Kansas	17,425	0.59%
Kentucky	12,500	0.28%
Louisiana	14,900	0.32%
Maine	13,890	1.02%
Maryland	238,600	3.86%
Massachusetts	293,080	4.17%
Michigan	87,905	0.87%
Minnesota	65,900	1.15%
Mississippi	1,525	0.05%
Missouri	64,275	1.04%
Montana	1,495	0.14%
Nebraska	9,350	0.48%
Nevada	76,300	2.46%
New Hampshire	10,120	0.73%
New Jersey	546,950	5.89%
New Mexico	12,625	0.60%
New York	1,772,470	8.77%
North Carolina	45,935	0.44%
North Dakota	400	0.05%
Ohio	151,615	1.28%
Oklahoma	4,425	0.11%
Oregon	40,650	0.96%
Pennsylvania	434,165	3.34%
Rhode Island	18,750	1.71%
South Carolina	13,820	0.27%
South Dakota	250	0.03%
Tennessee	22,800	0.33%
Texas	176,000	0.60%
Utah	5,650	0.17%
Vermont	5,985	0.93%
Virginia	150,955	1.75%
Washington	73,350	0.95%
West Virginia	2,310	0.13%
Wisconsin	33,455	0.57%
Wyoming	1,150	0.20%
Total	7,153,065	2.07%

Significant Jewish population centers

Metropolitan areas with largest Jewish populations (2015)

Rank		Metro area	Number of Jews
(WJC)	(ARDA)		(WJC)	(ASARB)
1	1	New York City	1,750,000	2,028,200
2	3	Miami	535,000	337,000
3	2	Los Angeles	490,000	662,450
4	4	Philadelphia	254,000	285,950
5	6	Chicago	248,000	265,400
8	8	San Francisco Bay Area	210,000	218,700
6	7	Boston	208,000	261,100
8	5	Baltimore–Washington	165,000	276,445

The New York City metropolitan area is home to by far the largest Jewish American population.

States with the highest percentage of Jews (2015)

Rank	State	Percent Jewish
1	New York	8.91
2	New Jersey	5.86
3	District of Columbia	4.25
4	Massachusetts	4.07
5	Maryland	3.99
6	Florida	3.28
7	Connecticut	3.28
8	California	3.18
9	Nevada	2.69
10	Illinois	2.31
11	Pennsylvania	2.29

The New York City metropolitan area is the second-largest Jewish population center in the world after the Tel Aviv metropolitan area in Israel. Several other major cities have large Jewish communities, including Los Angeles, Miami Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, San Francisco and Philadelphia. In many metropolitan areas, the majority of Jewish families live in suburban areas. The Greater Phoenix area was home to about 83,000 Jews in 2002, and has been rapidly growing. The greatest Jewish population on a per-capita basis for incorporated areas in the U.S. are Kiryas Joel Village, New York (greater than 93% based on language spoken in home), City of Beverly Hills, California (61%), and Lakewood Township, New Jersey (59%), with two of the incorporated areas, Kiryas Joel and Lakewood, having a high concentration of Haredi Jews, and one incorporated area, Beverly Hills, having a high concentration of non-Orthodox Jews.

The phenomenon of Israeli migration to the U.S. is often termed Yerida. The Israeli immigrant community in America is less widespread. The significant Israeli immigrant communities in the United States are in the New York City metropolitan area, Los Angeles, Miami, and Chicago.

• The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development calculated an 'expatriate rate' of 2.9 persons per thousand, putting Israel in the mid-range of expatriate rates among the 175 OECD countries examined in 2005.

According to the 2001 undertaking of the National Jewish Population Survey, 4.3 million American Jews have some sort of strong connection to the Jewish community, whether religious or cultural.

Distribution of Jewish Americans

According to the North American Jewish Data Bank the 104 counties and independent cities as of 2011 with the largest Jewish communities, as a percentage of population, were:

Counties	State	Jews	Pct Jewish
Rockland	New York	91,300	29.3%
Kings	New York	561,000	22.4%
Nassau	New York	230,000	17.2%
Palm Beach	Florida	208,850	15.8%
New York	New York	240,000	15.1%
Westchester	New York	136,000	14.3%
Montgomery	Maryland	113,000	11.6%
Ocean	New Jersey	61,500	10.7%
Marin	California	26,100	10.3%
Bergen	New Jersey	92,500	10.2%
Monmouth	New Jersey	64,000	10.2%
Broward	Florida	170,700	9.8%
Sullivan	New York	7,425	9.6%
Norfolk	Massachusetts	63,600	9.5%
Queens	New York	198,000	8.9%
Orange	New York	32,300	8.7%
Alpine	California	101	8.6%
San Francisco	California	65,800	8.2%
Montgomery	Pennsylvania	64,500	8.1%
Middlesex	Massachusetts	113,800	7.6%
Baltimore	Maryland	60,000	7.5%
Lake	Illinois	51,300	7.3%
Richmond	New York	34,000	7.3%
Santa Clara	California	128,000	7.2%
Arlington	Virginia	14,000	6.7%
San Mateo	California	47,800	6.7%
Bucks	Pennsylvania	41,400	6.6%
Ventura	California	54,000	6.6%
Middlesex	New Jersey	52,000	6.4%
Camden	New Jersey	32,100	6.2%
Essex	New Jersey	48,800	6.2%
Falls Church	Virginia	750	6.1%
Howard	Maryland	17,200	6.0%
Morris	New Jersey	29,700	6.0%
Somerset	New Jersey	19,000	5.9%
Suffolk	New York	86,000	5.8%
Cuyahoga	Ohio	70,300	5.5%
Fulton	Georgia	50,000	5.4%
Los Angeles	California	518,000	5.3%
Ozaukee	Wisconsin	4,500	5.2%
Fairfield	Connecticut	47,200	5.1%
Oakland	Michigan	61,200	5.1%
Baltimore	Maryland	30,900	5.0%
St. Louis	Missouri	49,600	5.0%
Nantucket	Massachusetts	500	4.9%
Denver	Colorado	28,700	4.8%
Sonoma	California	23,100	4.8%
Union	New Jersey	25,800	4.8%
Washington, D.C.	Washington, D.C.	28,000	4.7%
Philadelphia	Pennsylvania	66,800	4.4%
Pitkin	Colorado	750	4.4%
Arapahoe	Colorado	24,600	4.3%
Atlantic	New Jersey	11,700	4.3%
Geauga	Ohio	4,000	4.3%
Miami-Dade	Florida	106,300	4.3%
Chester	Pennsylvania	20,900	4.2%
Cook	Illinois	220,200	4.2%
Boulder	Colorado	12,000	4.1%
Passaic	New Jersey	20,000	4.0%
Alameda	California	59,100	3.9%
Albany	New York	12,000	3.9%
Bronx	New York	54,000	3.9%
Putnam	New York	3,900	3.9%
Delaware	Pennsylvania	21,000	3.8%
Clark	Nevada	72,300	3.7%
Suffolk	Massachusetts	27,000	3.7%
DeKalb	Georgia	25,000	3.6%
Fairfax	Virginia	38,900	3.6%
Alexandria	Virginia	4,900	3.5%
Dutchess	New York	10,000	3.4%
Napa	California	4,600	3.4%
Schenectady	New York	5,200	3.4%
Allegheny	Pennsylvania	40,500	3.3%
Berkshire	Massachusetts	4,300	3.3%
Fairfax	Virginia	750	3.3%
Hartford	Connecticut	29,600	3.3%
Clay	Georgia	101	3.2%
Ulster	New York	5,900	3.2%
Contra Costa	California	32,100	3.1%
New Haven	Connecticut	27,100	3.1%
Essex	Massachusetts	22,300	3.0%
Burlington	New Jersey	12,900	2.9%
San Diego	California	89,000	2.9%
Sussex	New Jersey	4,300	2.9%
Johnson	Kansas	15,000	2.8%
Orange	California	83,750	2.8%
Hamilton	Ohio	21,400	2.7%
Multnomah	Oregon	20,000	2.7%
Pinellas	Florida	25,000	2.7%
Monroe	New York	19,000	2.6%
Sarasota	Florida	9,950	2.6%
Broomfield	Colorado	1,400	2.5%
Cobb	Georgia	17,300	2.5%
Collier	Florida	8,000	2.5%
Hennepin	Minnesota	29,300	2.5%
Mercer	New Jersey	9,000	2.5%
Cumberland	Maine	6,775	2.4%
Seminole	Florida	10,000	2.4%
Cherokee	Georgia	5,000	2.3%
Custer	Idaho	101	2.3%
Dukes	Massachusetts	300	2.3%
Hampden	Massachusetts	10,600	2.3%
Santa Cruz	California	6,000	2.3%
Santa Fe	New Mexico	3,300	2.3%

Assimilation and population changes

These parallel themes have facilitated the extraordinary economic, political, and social success of the American Jewish community, but also have contributed to widespread cultural assimilation. More recently however, the propriety and degree of assimilation has also become a significant and controversial issue within the modern American Jewish community, with both political and religious skeptics.

While not all Jews disapprove of intermarriage, many members of the Jewish community have become concerned that the high rate of interfaith marriage will result in the eventual disappearance of the American Jewish community. Intermarriage rates have risen from roughly 6% in 1950 and 25% in 1974, to approximately 40–50% in the year 2000. By 2013, the intermarriage rate had risen to 71% for non-Orthodox Jews. This, in combination with the comparatively low birthrate in the Jewish community, has led to a 5% decline in the Jewish population of the United States in the 1990s. In addition to this, when compared with the general American population, the American Jewish community is slightly older.

A third of intermarried couples provide their children with a Jewish upbringing, and doing so is more common among intermarried families raising their children in areas with high Jewish populations. The Boston area, for example, is exceptional in that an estimated 60% of children of intermarriages are being raised Jewish, meaning that intermarriage would actually be contributing to a net increase in the number of Jews. As well, some children raised through intermarriage rediscover and embrace their Jewish roots when they themselves marry and have children.

In contrast to the ongoing trends of assimilation, some communities within American Jewry, such as Orthodox Jews, have significantly higher birth rates and lower intermarriage rates, and are growing rapidly. The proportion of Jewish synagogue members who were Orthodox rose from 11% in 1971 to 21% in 2000, while the overall Jewish community declined in number.  In 2000, there were 360,000 so-called "ultra-orthodox" (Haredi) Jews in USA (7.2%). The figure for 2006 is estimated at 468,000 (9.4%). Data from the Pew Center shows that, as of 2013, 27% of American Jews under the age of 18 live in Orthodox households, a dramatic increase from Jews aged 18 to 29, only 11% of whom are Orthodox. The UJA-Federation of New York reports that 60% of Jewish children in the New York City area live in Orthodox homes. In addition to economizing and sharing, many Haredi communities depend on government aid to support their high birth rate and large families. The Hasidic village of New Square, New York receives Section 8 housing subsidies at a higher rate than the rest of the region, and half of the population in the Hasidic village of Kiryas Joel, New York receive food stamps, while a third receive Medicaid.

About half of the American Jews are considered to be religious. Out of this 2,831,000 religious Jewish population, 92% are non-Hispanic white, 5% Hispanic (Most commonly from Argentina, Venezuela, or Cuba), 1% Asian, 1% black and 1% Other (mixed race etc.). Almost this many non-religious Jews exist in the United States.

Race and ethnicity

Jewish Ethnic Divisions

The United States Census Bureau classifies most American Jews as white. Jewish people are culturally diverse and may be of any race, ethnicity, or national origin. Many Jews have culturally assimilated into and are phenotypically indistinguishable from the dominant local populations of regions like Europe, the Caucasus and the Crimea, North Africa, West Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, South, East, and Central Asia, and the Americas where they have lived for many centuries. Most American Jews are Ashkenazi Jews who descend from Jewish populations of Central and Eastern Europe and are considered white unless they are Ashkenazi Jews of color. Many American Jews identify themselves as being both Jewish and white, while many solely identify as Jewish, resisting this identification. Several commentators have observed that "many American Jews retain a feeling of ambivalence about whiteness". Karen Brodkin explains this ambivalence as rooted in anxieties about the potential loss of Jewish identity, especially outside of intellectual elites. Similarly, Kenneth Marcus observes a number of ambivalent cultural phenomena which have also been noted by other scholars, and he concludes that "the veneer of whiteness has not established conclusively the racial construction of American Jews". The relationship between Jewish identity and white majority identity continues to be described as "complicated" for many American Jews, particularly Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews of European descent. The issue of Jewish whiteness may be different for many Mizrahi, Sephardi, Black, Asian, and Latino Jews, many of whom may never be considered white by society. Many American white nationalists and white supremacists view all Jews as non-white, even if they are of European descent. Some white nationalists believe that Jews can be white and a small number of white nationalists are Jewish.

In 2013, the Pew Research Center's Portrait of Jewish Americans found that more than 90% of Jews who responded to its survey described themselves as being non-Hispanic whites, 2% described themselves as being black, 3% described themselves as being Hispanic, and 2% described themselves as having other racial or ethnic backgrounds.

Jews by race, ancestry, or national origin

Asian-American Jews

According to the Pew Research Center, fewer than 1% of American Jews in 2020 identified as Asian Americans. Around 1% of religious Jews identified as Asian-American.

A small but growing community of around 350 Indian American Jews lives in the New York City metropolitan area, in both New York state and New Jersey. Many are members of India's Bene Israel community. The Indian Jewish Congregation of USA, headquartered in New York City, is the center of the organized community.

Jews of European descent

Jews of European descent, often referred to as white Jews, are classified as white by the US census and have generally been classified as legally white throughout American history. Many American Jews of European descent identify themselves as being both Jewish and white, while others solely identify themselves as being Jewish or identify as both Jewish and non-white. However, Jews of European descent rarely identify as Jews of color and are rarely considered people of color in American society. According to the Pew Research Center, the majority of American Jews are non-Hispanic white Ashkenazi Jews. Law professor David Bernstein has questioned the idea that American Jews were once considered non-white, writing that American Jews were "indeed considered white by law and by custom" despite the fact that they experienced "discrimination, hostility, assertions of inferiority and occasionally even violence." Bernstein notes that Jews were not targeted by laws against interracial marriage, were allowed to attend whites-only schools, and were classified as white in the Jim Crow South. The sociologists Philip Q. Yang and Kavitha Koshy have also questioned what they call the "becoming white thesis", noting that most Jews of European descent have been legally classified as white since the first US census in 1790, were legally white for the purposes of the Naturalization Act of 1790 that limited citizenship to "free White person(s)", and that they could find no legislative or judicial evidence that American Jews had ever been considered non-white.

Several commentators have observed that "many American Jews retain a feeling of ambivalence about whiteness". Karen Brodkin explains this ambivalence as rooted in anxieties about the potential loss of Jewish identity, especially outside of intellectual elites. Similarly, Kenneth Marcus observes a number of ambivalent cultural phenomena which have also been noted by other scholars, and he concludes that "the veneer of whiteness has not established conclusively the racial construction of American Jews". The relationship between American Jews and white majority identity continues to be described as "complicated". Many American white nationalists view Jews as non-white.

Jews of Middle Eastern and North African descent

Jews of Middle Eastern and North African descent (often referred to as Mizrahi Jews) are classified as white by the US census. Mizrahi Jews sometimes identify as Jews of color, but often do not, and they may or may not be considered people of color by society. Syrian Jews rarely identify as Jews of color and are generally not considered Jews of color by society. Many Syrian Jews identify as white, Middle Eastern, or otherwise non-white rather than as Jews of color.

African American Jews

Main article: African-American Jews

See also: African American–Jewish relations and Black Hebrew Israelites

The American Jewish community includes African American Jews and other American Jews who are of African descent, a definition which excludes North African Jewish Americans, who are currently classified by the U.S. Census as being white (although a new category was recommended by the Census Bureau for the 2020 census). Estimates of the number of American Jews of African descent in the United States range from 20,000 to 200,000. Jews of African descent belong to all American Jewish denominations. Like their other Jewish counterparts, some black Jews are atheists.

Notable African-American Jews include Drake, Lenny Kravitz, Lisa Bonet, Sammy Davis Jr., Rashida Jones, Ros Gold-Onwude, Yaphet Kotto, Jordan Farmar, Taylor Mays, Daveed Diggs, Alicia Garza, Tiffany Haddish and rabbis Capers Funnye and Alysa Stanton.

Relations between American Jews of African descent and other Jewish Americans are generally cordial. There are, however, disagreements with a specific minority of Black Hebrew Israelites community from among African-Americans who consider themselves, but not other Jews, to be the true descendants of the ancient Israelites. Black Hebrew Israelites are generally not considered members of the mainstream Jewish community, because they have not formally converted to Judaism, and they are not ethnically related to other Jews. One such group, the African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem, emigrated to Israel and was granted permanent residency status there.

Hispanic and Latin American Jews

Hispanic Jews have lived in what is now the United States since colonial times. The earliest Hispanic Jewish settlers were Sephardi Jews from Spain and Portugal. Beginning in the 1500s, some of the Spanish settlers in what is now New Mexico and Texas were Crypto-Jews, but there was no organized Jewish presence. Later waves of Sephardi immigration brought Judeo-Spanish speaking Jews from the Ottoman Empire, in what is now Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, and Syria. These Spanish-speaking Sephardi Jews, as well as Sephardi Jews of European descent, such as the Spanish and Portuguese Jews, are sometimes considered culturally but not ethnically Hispanic.

Hispanic and Latin American Jews, particularly Hispanic and Latin American Ashkenazi Jews, often identify as white rather than as Jews of color. Some Jews with roots in Latin America may not identify as "Hispanic" or "Latino" at all, usually due to their recent European immigrant origins. American Jews of Argentine, Brazilian, and Mexican descent are often Ashkenazi, but some are Sephardi.

Jews divided by Cultural or Jewish Ethnic Division Groupings

Ancestry	Population	% of US population
Ashkenazim	5,000,000–6,000,000	1.8–2.1%
Sephardim	300,000	0.087–0.087%
Mizrahim	250,000	0.072–0.072%
Italkim	200,000	0.058–0.058%
Bukharim	50,000–60,000	0.014–0.017%
Juhurim	10,000–40,000	0.003–0.012%
Turkos	8,000	0.002–0.002%
Romanyotim	6,500	0.002–0.002%
Beta Israel	1,000	0.0003%
Total	5,700,000–8,000,000	1.6–2.3%

Ashkenazi Jews in the United States

Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or, by using the Hebrew plural suffix -im, Ashkenazim are a Jewish diaspora population who coalesced in the Holy Roman Empire around the end of the first millennium. The term "Ashkenazi" refers to Jewish settlers who established communities along the Rhine river in Western Germany and in Northern France dating to the Middle Ages. The traditional diaspora language of Ashkenazi Jews is Yiddish (a Germanic language with elements of Hebrew, Aramaic, and Slavic languages), developed after they had moved into northern Europe: beginning with Germany and France in the Middle Ages. For centuries they used Hebrew only as a sacred language, until the revival of Hebrew as a common language in 20th century's Israel. A majority of the Jewish population in the United States are Ashkenazi Jews who descend from diaspora Jewish populations of Central and Eastern Europe. Most American Ashkenazi Jews are non-Hispanic whites, but a minority are Jews of color, Hispanic/Latino, or both.

Sephardi Jews in the United States

Sephardi Jews, also known as Sephardic Jews, Sephardim, or Hispanic Jews by modern scholars, are a Jewish ethnic division originating from traditionally established communities in the Iberian Peninsula (modern Spain and Portugal). The term "Sephardim" also sometimes refers to Mizrahi Jews (Eastern Jewish communities) of Western Asia and North Africa. Although most of this latter group do not have ancestry from the Jewish communities of Iberia, the majority of them were influenced by the Sephardic style of liturgy and Sephardic law and customs from the influence of the Iberian Jewish exiles over the course of the last few centuries (including from the Sephardic Golden Age and the teachings of many Iberian Jewish philosophers). This article deals with Sephardim within the narrower ethnic definition.

Largely expelled from the Iberian Peninsula in the late 15th century, they carried a distinctive Jewish diasporic identity with them to North Africa, including modern day Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt; South-Eastern and Southern Europe, including France, Italy, Greece, Bulgaria, and North Macedonia; Western Asia, including Turkey, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, and Iran; as well as the Americas (although in smaller numbers compared to the Ashkenazi Jewish diaspora); and all other places of their exiled settlement. They sometimes settled near existing Jewish communities, such as the one from former Kurdistan, or were the first in new frontiers, with their furthest reach via the Silk Road.

As a result of the more recent Jewish exodus from Arab lands, many of the Sephardim Tehorim from Western Asia and North Africa relocated to either Israel or France, where they form a significant portion of the Jewish communities today. Other significant communities of Sephardim Tehorim also migrated in more recent times from the Near East to New York City, Argentina, Costa Rica, Mexico, Montreal, Gibraltar, Puerto Rico, and Dominican Republic. Because of poverty and turmoil in Latin America, another wave of Sephardic Jews joined other Latin Americans who migrated to the United States, Canada, Spain, and other countries of Europe.

Mizrahi Jews in the United States

Mizrahi Jews (Hebrew: יהודי המִזְרָח) or Mizrahim (מִזְרָחִים), also sometimes referred to as Mizrachi (מִזְרָחִי), Edot HaMizrach (עֲדוֹת-הַמִּזְרָח; transl. '[Jewish] Communities of the [Middle] East') or Oriental Jews, are the descendants of the local Jewish communities that had existed in Western Asia and North Africa from Biblical times into the modern era.

In current usage, the term Mizrahim is almost exclusively applied to descendants of the Middle Eastern Jewish communities from Western Asia and North Africa; in this classification are Iraqi, Kurdish, Lebanese, Syrian, Yemenite, Turkish and Iranian Jews, as well as the descendants of Maghrebi Jews who had lived in North African countries, such as Egyptian, Libyan, Tunisian, Algerian, and Moroccan Jews.

Mizrahim is also sometimes extended to include Jewish communities from the Caucasus and Central Asia, such as Mountain Jews from Dagestan and Azerbaijan, and Bukharan Jews from Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. While both communities traditionally speak Judeo-Iranian languages such as Juhuri and Bukharian, these countries were all part of the former Soviet Union, as a result of which many of their descendants also speak Russian to a large extent.

Post-1948, Mizrahi Jewish, mostly thousands from Lebanese, Syrian and Egyptian Jewish descent, as well as some from other Middle East and North African Jewish communities migrated to the United States.

Ethiopian Jews in the United States

Further information: Ethiopian Americans, Ethiopian Jews, and Ethiopian Jews in Israel

The Beta Israel, also known as Ethiopian Jews, are a Jewish community that developed and lived for centuries in the area of the Ethiopian Empire. Most of the Beta Israel community emigrated to Israel in the late 20th century. Since the 1990s, around 1000 Hebrew-speaking, Ethiopian Jews that had settled in Israel as Ethiopian Jews in Israel re-settled in the United States as Ethiopian Americans, with around half of the Ethiopian Jewish Israeli-American community living in New York.

Socioeconomics

See also: Jewish-American working class and Model minority

Education plays a major role as a part of Jewish identity. As Jewish culture puts a special premium on it and stresses the importance of cultivation of intellectual pursuits, scholarship, and learning, American Jews as a group tend to be better educated and earn more than Americans as a whole. Jewish Americans also have an average of 14.7 years of schooling making them the most highly educated of all major religious groups in the United States.

Forty-four percent (55% of Reform Jews) report family incomes of over $100,000 compared to 19% of all Americans, with the next highest group being Hindus at 43%. And while 27% of Americans have a four-year university or postgraduate education, fifty-nine percent (66% of Reform Jews) of American Jews have, the second highest of any ethnic groups after Indian-Americans. 75% of American Jews have achieved some form of post-secondary education if two-year vocational and community college diplomas and certificates are also included.

31% of American Jews hold a graduate degree; this figure is compared with the general American population where 11% of Americans hold a graduate degree. White collar professional jobs have been attractive to Jews and much of the community tend to take up professional white collar careers requiring tertiary education involving formal credentials where the respectability and reputability of professional jobs is highly prized within Jewish culture. While 46% of Americans work in professional and managerial jobs, 61% of American Jews work as professionals, many of whom are highly educated, salaried professionals whose work is largely self-directed in management, professional, and related occupations such as engineering, science, medicine, investment banking, finance, law, and academia.

Much of the Jewish American community lead middle class lifestyles. While the median household net worth of the typical American family is $99,500, among American Jews the figure is $443,000. In addition, the median Jewish American income is estimated to be in the range of $97,000 to $98,000, nearly twice as high the American national median. Either of these two statistics may be confounded by the fact that the Jewish population is on average older than other religious groups in the country, with 51% of polled adults over the age of 50 compared to 41% nationally. Older people tend to both have higher income and be more highly educated. By 2016, Modern Orthodox Jews had a median household income of $158,000, while Open Orthodox Jews had a median household income at $185,000 (compared to the American median household income of $59,000 for 2016).

As a whole, American and Canadian Jews donate more than $9 billion a year to charity. This reflects Jewish traditions of supporting social services as a way of living out the dictates of Jewish law. Most of the charities that benefit are not specifically Jewish organizations.

While the median income of Jewish Americans is high, some Jewish communities have high levels of poverty. In the New York area, there are approximately 560,000 Jews living in poor or near-poor households, representing about 20% of the New York metropolitan Jewish community. Jewish people affected by poverty are disproportionately likely to be children, young adults, the elderly, people with low educational attainment, part-time workers, immigrants from the former Soviet Union, immigrants without American citizenship, Holocaust survivors, Orthodox families, and single adults including single parents. Disability is a major factor in the socioeconomic status of disabled Jews. Disabled Jews are significantly more likely to be low-income compared to able-bodied Jews, while high-income Jews are significantly less likely to be disabled. Secular Jews, Jews of no denomination, and people who identify as "just Jewish" are also more likely to live in poverty compared to Jews affiliated with a religious denomination.

According to analysis by Gallup, American Jews have the highest well-being of any ethnic or religious group in America.

The great majority of school-age Jewish students attend public schools, although Jewish day schools and yeshivas are to be found throughout the country. Jewish cultural studies and Hebrew language instruction is also commonly offered at synagogues in the form of supplementary Hebrew schools or Sunday schools.

From the early 1900s until the 1950s, quota systems were imposed at elite colleges and universities particularly in the Northeast, as a response to the growing number of children of recent Jewish immigrants; these limited the number of Jewish students accepted, and greatly reduced their previous attendance. Jewish enrollment at Cornell's School of Medicine fell from 40% to 4% between the world wars, and Harvard's fell from 30% to 4%. Before 1945, only a few Jewish professors were permitted as instructors at elite universities. In 1941, for example, antisemitism drove Milton Friedman from a non-tenured assistant professorship at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. Harry Levin became the first Jewish full professor in the Harvard English department in 1943, but the Economics department decided not to hire Paul Samuelson in 1948. Harvard hired its first Jewish biochemists in 1954.

According to Clark Kerr, Martin Meyerson in 1965 became the first Jew to serve, albeit temporarily, as the leader of a major American research university. That year, Meyerson served as acting chancellor of the University of California, Berkeley, but was unable to obtain a permanent appointment as a result of a combination of tactical errors on his part and antisemitism on the UC Board of Regents. Meyerson served as the president of the University of Pennsylvania from 1970 to 1981.

By 1986, a third of the presidents of the elite undergraduate final clubs at Harvard were Jewish. Rick Levin was president of Yale University from 1993 to 2013, Judith Rodin was president of the University of Pennsylvania from 1994 to 2004 (and is currently president of the Rockefeller Foundation), Paul Samuelson's nephew, Lawrence Summers, was president of Harvard University from 2001 until 2006, and Harold Shapiro was president of Princeton University from 1992 until 2000.

American Jews at American higher education institutions

Public Universities Rank University Enrollment for Jewish Students (est.) % of Student body Undergraduate Enrollment 1 University of Florida 6,500 19% 34,464 2 Rutgers University 6,400 18% 36,168 3 University of Central Florida 6,000 11% 55,776 4 University of Maryland, College Park 5,800 20% 28,472 5 University of Michigan 4,500 16% 28,983 6 Indiana University University of Wisconsin 4,200 11% 13% 39,184 31,710 8 CUNY, Brooklyn College Queens College Pennsylvania State University, University Park 4,000 28% 25% 10% 14,406 16,326 41,827 11 Binghamton University 3,700 27% 13,632 12 University at Albany Florida International University Michigan State University Arizona State University California State University, Northridge 3,500 27% 8% 9% 8% 10% 13,139 45,813 39,090 42,477 35,552

Private Universities Rank University Enrollment of Jewish Student (est.) % of Student body Undergraduate Enrollment 1 New York University 6,500 33% 19,401 2 Boston University 4,000 20% 15,981 3 Cornell University 3,500 25% 13,515 4 University of Miami 3,100 22% 14,000 5 The George Washington University University of Pennsylvania Yeshiva University 2,800 31% 30% 99% 10,394 9,718 2,803 8 Syracuse University 2,500 20% 12,500 9 Columbia University Emory University Harvard University Tulane University 2,000 29% 30% 30% 30% 6,819 6,510 6,715 6,533 13 Brandeis University Northwestern University Washington University in St. Louis 1,800 56% 23% 29% 3,158 7,826 6,097

Religion

Touro Synagogue, (built 1759) in Newport, Rhode Island, has the oldest still existing synagogue building in the United States

Observances and engagement

See also: Religion in the United States § Judaism

The American Jews' majority continues to identify themselves with Judaism and its main traditions, such as Conservative, Orthodox and Reform Judaism. But, already in the 1980s, 20–30 percent of members of largest Jewish communities, such as of New York City, Chicago, Miami, and others, rejected a denominational label.

Birkat Hachama of Conservative Jews, Encino, Los Angeles

According to the 1990 National Jewish Population Survey, 38% of Jews were affiliated with the Reform tradition, 35% were Conservative, 6% were Orthodox, 1% were Reconstructionists, 10% linked themselves to some other tradition, and 10% said they are "just Jewish".

US serviceman lighting a Menorah in observance of the first day of Hanukkah

Jewish religious practice in America is quite varied. Among the 4.3 million American Jews described as "strongly connected" to Judaism, over 80% report some sort of active engagement with Judaism, ranging from attending at daily prayer services on one end of the spectrum, to as little as attending only Passover Seders or lighting Hanukkah candles on the other.

A 2003 Harris Poll found that 16% of American Jews go to the synagogue at least once a month, 42% go less frequently but at least once a year, and 42% go less frequently than once a year. The survey found that of the 4.3 million strongly connected Jews, 46% belong to a synagogue. Among those households who belong to a synagogue, 38% are members of Reform synagogues, 33% Conservative, 22% Orthodox, 2% Reconstructionist, and 5% other types.

Traditionally, Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews do not have different branches (Orthodox, Conservative, Reform, etc.) but usually remain observant and religious. However, their synagogues are generally considered Orthodox or Sephardic Haredim by non-Sephardic Jews. But, not all Sephardim are Orthodox; among the pioneers of Reform Judaism movement in the 1820s there was the Sephardic congregation Beth Elohim in Charleston, South Carolina.

The survey discovered that Jews in the Northeast and Midwest are generally more observant than Jews in the South or West. Reflecting a trend also observed among other religious groups, Jews in the Northwestern United States are typically the least observant.

The 2008 American Religious Identification Survey found that around 3.4 million American Jews call themselves religious—out of a general Jewish population of about 5.4 million. The number of Jews who identify themselves as only culturally Jewish has risen from 20% in 1990 to 37% in 2008, according to the study. In the same period, the number of all US adults who said they had no religion rose from 8% to 15%. Jews are more likely to be secular than Americans in general, the researchers said. About half of all US Jews—including those who consider themselves religiously observant—claim in the survey that they have a secular worldview and see no contradiction between that outlook and their faith, according to the study's authors. Researchers attribute the trends among American Jews to the high rate of intermarriage and "disaffection from Judaism" in the United States.

Religious beliefs

American Jews are more likely to be atheists or agnostics than most Americans, especially when they are compared with American Protestants or Catholics. A 2003 poll found that while 79% of Americans believe in God, only 48% of American Jews do, compared to 79% and 90% of American Catholics and Protestants respectively. While 66% of Americans said that they were "absolutely certain" of God's existence, 24% of American Jews said the same. And though 9% of Americans believe that there is no God (8% of American Catholics and 4% of American Protestants), 19% of American Jews believe that God does not exist.

A 2009 Harris Poll showed that American Jews constitute the one religious group which is most accepting of the science of evolution, with 80% accepting evolution, compared to 51% for Catholics, 32% for Protestants, and 16% of born-again Christians. They were also less likely to believe in supernatural phenomena such as miracles, angels, or heaven.

A 2013 Pew Research Center report found that 1.7 million American Jewish adults, 1.6 million of whom were raised in Jewish homes or had Jewish ancestry, identified as Christians or Messianic Jews but also consider themselves ethnically Jewish. Another 700,000 American Christian adults considered themselves "Jews by affinity" or "grafted-in" Jews.

Buddhism

Main article: Jewish Buddhist

Jewish Buddhists are overrepresented among American Buddhists; this is specifically the case among those Jews whose parents are not Buddhist, and those Jews who are without a Buddhist heritage, with between one fifth and 30% of all American Buddhists identifying as Jewish though only 2% of Americans are Jewish. Nicknamed Jubus, an increasing number of American Jews have started to adopt Buddhist spiritual practices, while at the same time, they are continuing to identify with and practice Judaism. It may be the individual practices both Judaism and Buddhism. Notable American Jewish Buddhists include: Robert Downey Jr. Allen Ginsberg, Linda Pritzker, Jonathan F.P. Rose, Goldie Hawn and daughter Kate Hudson, Steven Seagal, Adam Yauch of the rap group The Beastie Boys, and Garry Shandling. Film makers the Coen Brothers have been influenced by Buddhism as well for a time.

Contemporary politics

Main article: American Jews in politics

Map of Jewish senators as of 2024. Blue indicates there is currently one Jewish senator from that state. Gray indicates no Jewish senators from that state.

Jews earn like Episcopalians, and vote like Puerto Ricans.

—Milton Himmelfarb

Today, American Jews are a distinctive and influential group in the nation's politics. Jeffrey S. Helmreich writes that the ability of American Jews to effect this through political or financial clout is overestimated, that the primary influence lies in the group's voting patterns.

"Jews have devoted themselves to politics with almost religious fervor," writes Mitchell Bard, who adds that Jews have the highest percentage voter turnout of any ethnic group (84% reported being registered to vote).

Though the majority (60–70%) of the country's Jews identify as Democratic, Jews span the political spectrum, with those at higher levels of observance being far more likely to vote Republican than their less observant and secular counterparts.

Florence Kahn was the first Jewish woman to be elected to the United States Congress and first woman to be reelected.

Owing to high Democratic identification in the 2008 United States Presidential Election, 78% of Jews voted for Democrat Barack Obama versus 21% for Republican John McCain, despite Republican attempts to connect Obama to Muslim and pro-Palestinian causes. It has been suggested that running mate Sarah Palin's conservative views on social issues may have nudged Jews away from the McCain–Palin ticket. In the 2012 United States presidential election, 69% of Jews voted for the Democratic incumbent President Obama.

In 2019, after the 2016 election of Donald Trump, poll data from the Jewish Electorate Institute showed that 73% of Jewish voters felt less secure as Jews than before, 71% disapproved of Trump's handling of anti-Semitism (54% strongly disapprove), 59% felt that he bears "at least some responsibility" for the Pittsburgh synagogue shooting and Poway synagogue shooting, and 38% were concerned that Trump was encouraging right-wing extremism. Views of the Democratic and Republican parties were milder: 28% were concerned that Republicans were making alliances with white nationalists and tolerating anti-Semitism within their ranks, while 27% were concerned that Democrats were tolerating anti-Semitism within their ranks.

In the 2020 U.S. Presidential Election, 77% of American Jews voted for Joe Biden, while 22% voted for Donald Trump.

Foreign policy

American Jews have displayed a very strong interest in foreign affairs, especially regarding Germany in the 1930s, and Israel since 1945. Both major parties have made strong commitments in support of Israel. Dr. Eric Uslaner of the University of Maryland argues, with regard to the 2004 election: "Only 15% of Jews said that Israel was a key voting issue. Among those voters, 55% voted for Kerry (compared to 83% of Jewish voters not concerned with Israel)." Uslander goes on to point out that negative views of Evangelical Christians had a distinctly negative impact for Republicans among Jewish voters, while Orthodox Jews, traditionally more conservative in outlook as to social issues, favored the Republican Party. A New York Times article suggests that the Jewish movement to the Republican party is focused heavily on faith-based issues, similar to the Catholic vote, which is credited for helping President Bush taking Florida in 2004. However, Natan Guttman, The Forward's Washington bureau chief, dismisses this notion, writing in Moment that while "[i]t is true that Republicans are making small and steady strides into the Jewish community ... a look at the past three decades of exit polls, which are more reliable than pre-election polls, and the numbers are clear: Jews vote overwhelmingly Democratic," an assertion confirmed by the most recent presidential election results.

Jewish Americans were more strongly opposed to the Iraq War from its onset than any other ethnic group, or even most Americans. The greater opposition to the war was not simply a result of high Democratic identification among Jewish Americans, as Jewish Americans of all political persuasions were more likely to oppose the war than non-Jews who shared the same political leanings.

Domestic issues

A 2013 Pew Research Center survey suggests that American Jews' views on domestic politics are intertwined with the community's self-definition as a persecuted minority who benefited from the liberties and societal shifts in the United States and feel obligated to help other minorities enjoy the same benefits. American Jews across age and gender lines tend to vote for and support politicians and policies which are supported by the Democratic Party. On the other hand, Orthodox American Jews have domestic political views which are more similar to those of their religious Christian neighbors.

American Jews are largely supportive of LGBT rights with 79% responding in a 2011 Pew poll that homosexuality should be "accepted by society", while the overall average in the same 2011 poll among Americans of all demographic groups was that 50%. A split on homosexuality exists by level of observance. Reform rabbis in America perform same-sex marriages as a matter of routine, and there are fifteen LGBT Jewish congregations in North America. Reform, Reconstructionist and, increasingly, Conservative, Jews are far more supportive on issues like gay marriage than Orthodox Jews are. A 2007 survey of Conservative Jewish leaders and activists showed that an overwhelming majority supported gay rabbinical ordination and same-sex marriage. Accordingly, 78% of Jewish voters rejected Prop 8, the bill that banned gay marriage in California. No other ethnic or religious group voted as strongly against it.

A 2014 Pew poll found that American Jews mostly support abortion rights, with 83% answering that abortion should be legal in all or most cases.

In considering the trade-off between the economy and environmental protection, American Jews were significantly more likely than other religious groups (excepting Buddhism) to favor stronger environmental protection.

Jews in America also overwhelmingly oppose current United States marijuana policy. In 2009, eighty-six percent of Jewish Americans opposed arresting nonviolent marijuana smokers, compared to 61% for the population at large and 68% of all Democrats. Additionally, 85% of Jews in the United States opposed using federal law enforcement to close patient cooperatives for medical marijuana in states where medical marijuana is legal, compared to 67% of the population at large and 73% of Democrats.

A 2014 Pew Research survey titled "How Americans Feel About Religious Groups", found that Jews were viewed the most favorably of all other groups, with a rating of 63 out of 100. Jews were viewed most positively by fellow Jews, followed by white Evangelicals. Sixty percent of the 3,200 persons surveyed said they had ever met a Jew.

Jewish American culture

See also: Jewish secularism and Jewish culture

Since the time of the last major wave of Jewish immigration to America (over 2,000,000 Jews from Eastern Europe who arrived between 1890 and 1924), Jewish secular culture in the United States has become integrated in almost every important way with the broader American culture. Many aspects of Jewish American culture have, in turn, become part of the wider culture of the United States.

Language

Jewish languages in the US

Year	Hebrew	Yiddish
1910a	—	1,051,767
1920a	—	1,091,820
1930a	—	1,222,658
1940a	—	924,440
1960a	38,346	503,605
1970a	36,112	438,116
1980		315,953
1990	144,292	213,064
2000	195,374	178,945
^a Foreign-born population only

Most American Jews today are native English speakers. A variety of other languages are still spoken within some American Jewish communities that are representative of the various Jewish ethnic divisions from around the world that have come together to make up all of America's Jewish population.

Many of America's Hasidic Jews, being exclusively of Ashkenazi descent, are raised speaking Yiddish. Yiddish was once spoken as the primary language by most of the several million Ashkenazi Jews who migrated to the United States. It was, in fact, the original language in which The Forward was published. Yiddish has had an influence on American English, and words borrowed from it include chutzpah ("effrontery", "gall"), nosh ("snack"), schlep ("drag"), schmuck ("an obnoxious, contemptible person", euphemism for "penis"), and, depending on idiolect, hundreds of other terms. (See also Yinglish.)

Many Mizrahi Jews, including those from Arab countries such as Syria, Egypt, Iraq, Yemen, Morocco, Libya, etc. speak Arabic. There are communities of Mizrahim in Brooklyn. The town of Deal, New Jersey, is notably mostly Syrian-Jewish, with many of them Orthodox.

The Persian Jewish community in the United States, notably the large community in and around Los Angeles and Beverly Hills, California, primarily speak Persian (see also Judeo-Persian) in the home and synagogue. They also support their own Persian language newspapers. Persian Jews also reside in eastern parts of New York such as Kew Gardens and Great Neck, Long Island.

Many recent Jewish immigrants from the Soviet Union speak primarily Russian at home, and there are several notable communities where public life and business are carried out mainly in Russian, such as in Brighton Beach in New York City and Sunny Isles Beach in Florida. 2010 estimates of the number of Jewish Russian-speaking households in the New York city area are around 92,000, and the number of individuals are somewhere between 223,000 and 350,000. Another high population of Russian Jews can be found in the Richmond District of San Francisco where Russian markets stand alongside the numerous Asian businesses.

A typical poster-hung wall in Jewish Brooklyn, New York

American Bukharan Jews speak Bukhori, a dialect of Tajik Persian. They publish their own newspapers such as the Bukharian Times and a large portion live in Queens, New York. Forest Hills in the New York City borough of Queens is home to 108th Street, which is called by some "Bukharian Broadway", a reference to the many stores and restaurants found on and around the street that have Bukharian influences. Many Bukharians are also represented in parts of Arizona, Miami, Florida, and areas of Southern California such as San Diego.

There is a sizeable Mountain Jewish population in Brooklyn, New York that speaks Judeo-Tat (Juhuri), a dialect of Persian.

Classical Hebrew is the language of most Jewish religious literature, such as the Tanakh (Bible) and Siddur (prayerbook). Modern Hebrew is also the primary official language of the modern State of Israel, which further encourages many to learn it as a second language. Some recent Israeli immigrants to America speak Hebrew as their primary language.

There are a diversity of Hispanic Jews living in America. The oldest community is that of the Sephardi Jews of New Netherland. Their ancestors had fled Spain or Portugal during the Inquisition for the Netherlands, and then came to New Netherland. Though there is dispute over whether they should be considered Hispanic. Some Hispanic Jews, particularly in Miami and Los Angeles, immigrated from Latin America. The largest groups are those that fled Cuba after the communist revolution (known as Jewbans), Argentine Jews, and more recently, Venezuelan Jews. Argentina is the Latin American country with the largest Jewish population. There are a large number of synagogues in the Miami area that give services in Spanish. The last Hispanic Jewish community would be those that recently came from Portugal or Spain, after Spain and Portugal granted citizenship to the descendants of Jews who fled during the Inquisition. All the above listed Hispanic Jewish groups speak either Spanish or Ladino.

Jewish American literature

Main article: Jewish American literature

Although American Jews have contributed greatly to American arts in general, there still remains a distinctly Jewish American literature. Jewish American literature often explores the experience of being a Jew in America, and the conflicting pulls of secular society and history.

Popular culture

Main articles: Jews in American cinema, List of Jewish American authors, List of Jewish American entertainers, List of Jewish musicians, List of Jewish American sportspeople, List of Jewish American visual artists, and List of Jewish American photographers

Yiddish theater was very well attended, and provided a training ground for performers and producers who moved to Hollywood in the 1920s. Many of the early Hollywood moguls and pioneers were Jewish. They played roles in the development of radio and television networks, typified by William S. Paley who ran CBS. Stephen J. Whitfield states that "The Sarnoff family was long dominant at NBC."

Many individual Jews have made significant contributions to American popular culture. There have been many Jewish American actors and performers, ranging from early 1900s actors, to classic Hollywood film stars, and culminating in many currently known actors. The field of American comedy includes many Jews. The legacy also includes songwriters and authors, for example the author of the song "Viva Las Vegas" Doc Pomus, or Billy the Kid composer Aaron Copland. Many Jews have been at the forefront of women's issues.

There were 110 Jewish players in Major League Baseball between 1870 and 1881. The first generation of Jewish Americans who immigrated during the 1880–1924 peak period were not interested in baseball, and in some cases tried to prevent their children from watching or participating in baseball-related activities. Most were focused on making sure they and their children took advantage of education and employment opportunities. Despite the efforts of parents, Jewish children became interested in baseball quickly since it was already embedded in the broader American culture. The second generation of immigrants saw baseball as a means to celebrate American culture without abandoning their broader religious community. After 1924, many Yiddish newspapers began covering baseball, which they had not done previously.

Government and military

Grave of a Confederate Jewish soldier near Clinton, Louisiana

Main articles: List of Jewish American politicians and List of Jewish Americans in the military

See also: Military history of Jewish Americans

Since 1845, a total of 34 Jews have served in the Senate, including the 14 present-day senators noted above. Judah P. Benjamin was the first practicing Jewish Senator, and would later serve as Confederate Secretary of War and Secretary of State during the Civil War. Rahm Emanuel served as Chief of Staff to President Barack Obama. The number of Jews elected to the House rose to an all-time high of 30. Eight Jews have been appointed to the United States Supreme Court, of which one (Elena Kagan) is currently serving. Had Merrick Garland's 2016 nomination been accepted, that number would have risen to four out of nine since Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Stephen Breyer were also serving at that time.

Гражданская война ознаменовала переходный период для американских евреев. Он положил конец широко распространенной в Европе антисемитской «утке» о том, что евреи трусливы и предпочитают бежать от войны, а не служить вместе со своими согражданами в бою.

По меньшей мере двадцать восемь американских евреев были награждены Почетной медалью .

Вторая мировая война

Более 550 000 евреев служили в армии США во время Второй мировой войны ; около 11 000 из них были убиты и более 40 000 ранены. Было трое лауреатов Почетной медали; 157 награжденных армейской медалью за выдающиеся заслуги , медалью за выдающиеся заслуги на флоте , крестом за выдающиеся заслуги или крестом военно-морского флота ; и около 1600 обладателей Серебряной Звезды . Еврейским военнослужащим было вручено около 50 000 других наград и наград, всего было получено 52 000 наград. В этот период евреи составляли примерно 3,3 процента от общей численности населения США, но они составляли около 4,23 процента в вооруженных силах США. Около 60 процентов всех врачей-евреев в Соединенных Штатах моложе 45 лет работали военными врачами и медиками .

Много Еврейские физики , в том числе Дж. Роберт Оппенгеймер , были вовлечены в Манхэттенский проект – секретную попытку времен Второй мировой войны разработать атомную бомбу . Многие из этих физиков были беженцами из нацистской Германии или от антисемитских преследований, которые происходили и в других частях Европы.

Американская народная музыка

Евреи участвуют в американской народной музыке с конца 19 века; как правило, это были беженцы из Центральной и Восточной Европы, находящиеся в значительно более неблагоприятном экономическом положении, чем их устоявшиеся западноевропейские сефардские единоверцы. Историки видят в этом наследие светского идишского театра, канторских традиций и стремления к ассимиляции. К 1940-м годам евреи прочно утвердились на американской фолк-музыкальной сцене.

Примеры значительного влияния, которое евреи оказали на американскую фолк-музыку, включают, помимо прочего: Мо Аш первым записал и выпустил большую часть музыки Вуди Гатри , в том числе « This Land is Your Land » ( см. Recordings ) в ответ на Ирвинга Берлина «God Bless America» , а Гатри писал еврейские песни . Гатри женился на еврее , и их сын Арло сам стал влиятельным. Корпорация Аша Folkways Records также выпустила большую часть музыки Ледбелли и Пита Сигера 40-х и 50-х годов. Большой музыкальный каталог Аша был добровольно передан в дар Смитсоновскому институту .

Евреи также преуспели в джазовой музыке и внесли свой вклад в ее популяризацию.

Трое из четырех создателей фольклорного фестиваля в Ньюпорте — Вейн, Бикель и Гроссман (Зигер — нет) были евреями. Альберт Гроссман соединил Петра, Павла и Мэри , из которых Ярроу — еврей. Оскар Брэнд из канадской еврейской семьи ведет самую продолжительную радиопрограмму «Фестиваль народной песни Оскара Брэнда», которая последовательно выходит в эфир с 1945 года из Нью-Йорка. И это первая американская передача, где ведущий сам отвечает на любую личную переписку.

Влиятельная группа The Weavers , преемница Almanac Singers, возглавляемая Питом Сигером, имела еврейского менеджера, а двое из четырех членов группы были евреями (Гилберт и Хеллерман). " , лично выбранная для записи Питом Сигером На стороне B "Good Night Irene" была еврейская народная песня " Tzena, Tzena, Tzena .

Влиятельный журнал о народной музыке Sing Out! был соучредителем и редактором Ирвина Зильбера в 1951 году и редактировался им до 1967 года, когда журнал прекратил выходить на десятилетия. Rolling Stone Первый музыкальный критик журнала Джон Ландау имеет немецкое еврейское происхождение. Иззи Янг, создатель легендарного Фольклорный центр в Нью-Йорке, а в настоящее время — Фольклорный центр возле Мариаторгета в Сёдермальме, Швеция, который занимается американской и шведской народной музыкой.

Дэйв Ван Ронк заметил, что закулисная фолк-сцена 1950-х годов «была как минимум на 50 процентов еврейской, и они приняли музыку как часть своей ассимиляции в англо-американскую традицию, которая сама по себе была в значительной степени искусственной конструкцией, но, тем не менее, обеспечивала у нас есть некоторые точки соприкосновения». Лауреат Нобелевской премии Боб Дилан тоже еврей.

Финансы и право

Евреи занимались финансовыми услугами еще с колониальной эпохи. Они получили права на торговлю мехом из голландских и шведских колоний. Британские губернаторы соблюдали эти права после прихода к власти. Во время Войны за независимость Хайм Соломон помог создать первый полуцентральный банк Америки и консультировал Александра Гамильтона по вопросам построения финансовой системы Америки.

Американские евреи в 19, 20 и 21 веках сыграли важную роль в развитии индустрии финансовых услуг Америки как в инвестиционных банках, так и в инвестиционных фондах. Немецкие еврейские банкиры начали играть важную роль в американских финансах в 1830-х годах, когда государственные и частные займы для оплаты каналов, железных дорог и других внутренних улучшений быстро и значительно возросли. Такие люди, как Август Бельмонт (агент Ротшильдов в Нью-Йорке и ведущий демократ), Филип Шпейер, Джейкоб Шифф (в Kuhn, Loeb & Company), Джозеф Селигман , Филип Леман (из Lehman Brothers ), Жюль Баш и Маркус Гольдман (из Goldman Sachs ) иллюстрируют эту финансовую элиту. Как и в случае с их коллегами-неевреями, семейные, личные и деловые связи, репутация честного и порядочного человека, способности и готовность идти на рассчитанный риск были необходимы для привлечения капитала из широко разбросанных источников. Семьи и фирмы, которые они контролировали, были связаны религиозными и социальными факторами, а также распространенностью смешанных браков. Эти личные связи выполняли реальные деловые функции до появления институциональных организаций в ХХ веке. Антисемитские элементы часто ошибочно считали их ключевыми игроками в предполагаемой еврейской клике, сговорившейся с целью господства над миром.

По словам Цукермана (2009), с конца 20-го века евреи играли важную роль в индустрии хедж-фондов. Таким образом, SAC Capital Advisors , Управление Фондом Сороса , И-Зифф Кэпитал Менеджмент , ГЛГ Партнеры Ренессанс Технологии и Эллиотт Менеджмент Корпорейшн — это крупные хедж-фонды, соучредителями которых являются евреи. Они также сыграли ключевую роль в индустрии прямых инвестиций, став соучредителями некоторых крупнейших фирм в Соединенных Штатах, таких как Blackstone , Цербер Кэпитал Менеджмент , ТПГ Капитал , БлэкРок , Карлайл Групп , Варбург Пинкус , и ККР .

Очень немногие еврейские юристы были наняты Белые англосаксонские протестанты » («WASP») высококлассными юридическими фирмами « , но они открыли свои собственные. Доминирование WASP в юриспруденции закончилось, когда ряд крупных еврейских юридических фирм достигли элитного статуса в отношениях с высокопоставленными корпорациями. Еще в 1950 году в Нью-Йорке не было ни одной крупной еврейской юридической фирмы. Однако к 1965 году шесть из 20 крупнейших фирм были еврейскими; к 1980 году четверо из десяти крупнейших были евреями.

Федеральная резервная система

Пол Варбург , один из ведущих сторонников создания центрального банка в Соединенных Штатах и ​​один из первых управляющих недавно созданной Федеральной резервной системы , происходил из известной еврейской семьи в Германии. С тех пор несколько евреев занимали посты председателей ФРС, в том числе Юджин Мейер , Артур Ф. Бернс , Алан Гринспен , Бен Бернанке и Джанет Йеллен .

Наука, бизнес и академические круги

Основные статьи: Список американских ученых-евреев , Список американских бизнесменов-евреев и Список американских ученых-евреев.

Многие евреи добились значительных успехов как предпринимательское и профессиональное меньшинство в Соединенных Штатах. Многие еврейские семейные предприятия , которые передаются из поколения в поколение, служат активом , источником дохода и закладывают прочную финансовую основу для общего социально-экономического процветания семьи. В еврейской культурной сфере Америки американские евреи также развили сильную культуру предпринимательства, поскольку выдающиеся достижения в предпринимательстве и участие в бизнесе и коммерции высоко ценятся в еврейской культуре. Американских евреев также привлекали различные академические дисциплины, такие как физика, социология, экономика, психология, математика, философия и лингвистика ( см. в разделе « Еврейская культура некоторые причины »), и они играли непропорционально большую роль во многих академических областях. Американские еврейские интеллектуалы, такие как Сол Беллоу , Айн Рэнд , Ноам Хомский , Томас Фридман , Милтон Фридман и Эли Визель, оказали большое влияние на основную американскую общественную жизнь. Среди американских лауреатов Нобелевской премии 37 процентов были американскими евреями (в 18 раз больше процента евреев в населении), как и 61 процент лауреатов медали Джона Бейтса Кларка по экономике (в тридцать пять раз больше процента евреев).

В деловом мире в 1995 году было обнаружено, что, хотя американские евреи составляли менее 2,5 процента населения США, они занимали 7,7 процента мест в советах директоров различных корпораций США . Американские евреи также имеют сильное присутствие среди владельцев НБА . Из 30 команд НБА 14 являются основными владельцами-евреями. Несколько евреев служили комиссарами НБА, в том числе предыдущий комиссар НБА Дэвид Стерн и нынешний комиссар НБА Адам Сильвер .

Поскольку многие карьеры в науке, бизнесе и академических кругах обычно хорошо оплачиваются, американские евреи также, как правило, имеют несколько более высокий средний доход, чем большинство американцев. Национальное обследование еврейского населения 2000–2001 годов показывает, что средний доход еврейской семьи составляет 54 000 долларов в год (на 5 000 долларов больше, чем в средней семье), и 34% еврейских семей сообщают о доходе более 75 000 долларов в год.

Еда

Основная статья: Американская еврейская кухня

Американские евреи оказали большое влияние на кухню Соединенных Штатов. Обычными продуктами, которые едят американские евреи, являются бублики , книш , фаршированная рыба , креплах , суп с шариками из мацы , хаманташ , лосось , кугель , пастрами и грудинка . Компании, специализирующиеся на еврейских американских продуктах питания, включают Manischewitz и Streit's .

Известные люди

Более полный список см. в разделе «Списки американских евреев» .

См. также

• Американская еврейская кухня
• Израильские американцы
• Еврейские ветераны войны Соединенных Штатов Америки
• Список еврейских политических вех в Соединенных Штатах
• Национальный музей американской еврейской военной истории
• Евреи в Лос-Анджелесе
• Евреи в штате Мэн
• Вечный стереотип иностранца в Америке
• Стереотипы евреев

Библиография

Общие работы

• Дайнер, Хасия и др. Ее восхваляют произведения: история еврейских женщин в Америке от колониальных времен до наших дней (2002).
• Закусочная, Хасия . Евреи США, 1654–2000 (2004) онлайн

• Фарбер, Роберта Розенберг; Ваксман, Хаим И. , ред. (1999). Евреи в Америке: современный читатель . Уолтем, Массачусетс: Издательство Университета Брандейса. ISBN  9780874518993 .
• Файнгольд, Генри Л., изд. (1992–1995). Еврейский народ в Америке: 5-томный комплект . Балтимор, Мэриленд: Издательство Университета Джонса Хопкинса.
  • Фабер, Эли. Время сажать: первая миграция, 1654–1820 гг. (Том 1, 1992 г.) онлайн
  • Дайнер, Хасия Р. Время сбора: Вторая миграция, 1820–1880 (Том 2, 1992) онлайн
  • Сорин, Джеральд. Время строительства: Третья миграция, 1880–1920 гг. (Том 3, 1992 г. , онлайн) .
  • Фейнгольд, Генри Л. Время поиска: выход в мейнстрим, 1920–1945 (том 4, 1992) онлайн
  • Шапиро, Эдвард С. Время исцеления: американское еврейство после Второй мировой войны (Том 5, 1995) онлайн
• Шескин, Ира М. (2000). «Американские евреи» . В Макки, Джесси О. (ред.). Этническая принадлежность в современной Америке: географическая оценка . Лэнхэм, Мэриленд: Роуман и Литтлфилд. ISBN  978-0-7425-0034-1 .
• Склер, Маршал, изд. (1982). Понимание американского еврейства . Нью-Брансуик, Нью-Джерси: Центр современных еврейских исследований Университета Брандейса; Книги транзакций. ISBN  0-87855-454-8 .
• Склер, Маршал, изд. (1983). Американские евреи, читатель . Нью-Брансуик, Нью-Джерси; Нью-Йорк: Центр современных еврейских исследований Университета Брандейса; Дом Бермана. ISBN  0874413486 .
• Сорин, Джеральд (1997). Традиция трансформируется: еврейский опыт в Америке.
• Вертхаймер, Джек , изд. (2007). Представляя американскую еврейскую общину . Уолтем, Массачусетс: Издательство Университета Брандейса. ISBN  978-1-58465-669-2 .

Исторические темы

Дополнительная информация: История евреев в Соединенных Штатах § Историография и память.

• Барнетт, Майкл Н. 2016. Звезда и полосы: история внешней политики американских евреев . Издательство Принстонского университета.
• Фрид, Льюис и др., ред. Справочник американо-еврейской литературы: аналитический справочник по темам, темам и источникам (Greenwood Press, 1988).
• Гурок, Джеффри С. (2013). «Написание еврейской истории Нью-Йорка двадцатого века: путешествие по пяти районам». Исторический компас . 11 (3): 215–226. дои : 10.1111/hic3.12033 .
• Хау, Ирвинг. Мир наших отцов: путешествие восточноевропейских евреев в Америку и жизнь, которую они нашли и создали (1976).
• Хайман, Паула и Дебора Дэш Мур , ред. Еврейские женщины в Америке: Историческая энциклопедия. 1997 год
• Ледерхендлер, Эли. Американское еврейство: новая история (Cambridge UP, 2017). 331 стр.
• Маркус, Джейкоб Рейдер. Американский еврей, 1585–1990: история (1995) онлайн .
• Маркус, Джейкоб Рейдер. Американская еврейка, 1654–1980 (1981) онлайн
• Норвуд, Стивен Х. и Юнис Г. Поллак, ред. Энциклопедия истории американских евреев (2 том, 2007 г.), 775 стр.; всестороннее освещение экспертами; отрывок и текстовый поиск, том 1
• Робинсон, Ира. «Изобретение американской еврейской истории». Американская еврейская история (1994): 309–320. в JSTOR
• Венгер, Бет С. Уроки истории: создание американского еврейского наследия (2012) , отрывок
• Вертхаймер, Джек (1993). «Американская еврейская история» . У Джека Вертхаймера (ред.). Современный еврейский опыт: Руководство для читателя . Нью-Йорк; Лондон: Нью-Йоркский университет Пресс. стр. 52–61. ISBN  0-8147-9261-8 .
• Уитфилд, Стивен Дж. В поисках американской еврейской культуры. 1999 год
• Йерушалми, Йосеф Хаим. Захор: еврейская история и еврейская память (Вашингтонский университет, 2012 г.)

Политика

Дополнительная информация: Американские евреи в политике § Дополнительная литература

• Доллингер, Марк. В поисках инклюзивности: евреи и либерализм в современной Америке. 2000.
• Фейнгольд, Генри Л. Американская еврейская политическая культура и либеральные убеждения (Syracuse University Press; 2014) 384 страницы; прослеживает историю, доминирование и мотивацию либерализма в американской еврейской политической культуре, а также рассматривает опасения по поводу Израиля и воспоминания о Холокосте.
• Горен, Артур. Политика и общественная культура американских евреев. 1999.
• Мейзел, Луи Сэнди; Форман, Ира Н.; Альтшиллер, Дональд; Бассетт, Чарльз Уокер (2004). Евреи в американской политике: очерки . Роуман и Литтлфилд.
• Мур, Дебора Дэш (2008). Американская политика еврейской идентичности . Издательство Мичиганского университета.
• Свонкин, Стюарт (1997). Евреи против предрассудков: американские евреи и борьба за гражданские свободы .

Религии

• Ариэль, Яаков (2000). Евангелизация избранного народа: миссии к евреям в Америке, 1880–2000 гг . Чапел-Хилл, Северная Каролина; Лондон: Издательство Университета Северной Каролины. ISBN  0-8078-2566-2 . OCLC   43708450 .
• Ариэль, Яаков (2010). «Иудаизм» . В Гофф, Филип (ред.). Блэквеллский спутник религии в Америке . Молден, Массачусетс; Оксфорд: Уайли-Блэквелл. стр. 599–613. ISBN  978-1-4051-6936-3 .
• Блау, Джозеф Леон (1976). Иудаизм в Америке. От любопытства к третьей вере . Чикаго, Иллинойс: Издательство Чикагского университета. ISBN  0-22605-727-5 .
• Буксбаум, Шелли М.; Кареш, Сара Э. (2003). Еврейская вера в Америке . Вера в Америку. Дж. Гордон Мелтон , редактор серии. Нью-Йорк: факты в архиве. ISBN  0-8160-4986-6 .
• Коэн, Наоми (1992). Евреи в христианской Америке: стремление к религиозному равенству.
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• Либман, Чарльз С .; Коэн, Стивен Мартин (1990). Два мира иудаизма: израильский и американский опыт . Нью-Хейвен, Коннектикут: Издательство Йельского университета. ISBN  9780300047264 .
• Магид, Шауль (2013). Американский пост-иудаизм: идентичность и обновление в постэтническом обществе . Религия в Северной Америке. Блумингтон, В: Издательство Университета Индианы. ISBN  9780253008022 .
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• Мелтон, Дж. Гордон ; и др., ред. (2009) [1978]. «Авраамические религии». Энциклопедия американских религий Мелтона (8-е изд.). Детройт, Мичиган: Обучение Гейла Сенгеджа. ISBN  978-0-787-69696-2 . ( в архиве )
• Мейер, Майкл А. (1988). Ответ на современность: история реформаторского движения в иудаизме . Нью-Йорк: Издательство Оксфордского университета. ISBN  9780195051674 .
• Мейер, Майкл А .; Плаут, В. Гюнтер (2001). Читатель реформистского иудаизма: Североамериканские документы (PDF) . Нью-Йорк: КГРН Пресс. ISBN  0-8074-0732-1 .
• Миттлман, Алан Л .; Лихт, Роберт А.; Сарна, Джонатан Д. , ред. (2002). Еврейская политика и американское гражданское общество: общинные агентства и религиозные движения в американской общественной сфере . Роуман и Литтлфилд. ISBN  9780742521223 .
• Нойснер, Джейкоб (1972). Американский иудаизм, Приключение в современности: антологическое эссе . Энглвуд Клиффс, Нью-Джерси: Прентис-Холл. Перепечатка : Нью-Йорк: KTAV Publ. Дом, 1978 год. ISBN   0-87068-681-X
• Нойснер, Джейкоб , изд. (1975). Синагога и раввин . Понимание американского иудаизма: к описанию современной религии, том. 1. Нью-Йорк: Издательство КТАВ. Дом. ISBN  0870682806 .
• Нойснер, Джейкоб , изд. (1975). Секторы американского иудаизма: реформа, православие, консерватизм и реконструкционизм . Понимание американского иудаизма: к описанию современной религии, том. 2. Нью-Йорк: Издательство КТАВ. Дом. ISBN  0870682792 .
• Нойснер, Джейкоб (1981). Иудаизм в американских гуманитарных науках . Брауновские иудаистские исследования. Чико: Scholars Press.
• Нойснер, Джейкоб (1983). Иудаизм в американских гуманитарных науках. Вторая серия. Еврейское обучение и новые гуманитарные науки. Брауновские иудаистские исследования. Чико: Scholars Press.
• Нойснер, Джейкоб , изд. (1993). Реформация реформистского иудаизма . Иудаизм в Америке времен холодной войны, 1945–1990, т. 1, с. 6. Нью-Йорк; Лондон: Garland Publ. ISBN  9780815300762 .
• Нойснер, Джейкоб , изд. (1993). Сохранение консервативного иудаизма: реконструктивистский иудаизм . Иудаизм в Америке времен холодной войны, 1945–1990, т. 1, с. 7. Нью-Йорк; Лондон: Garland Publ. ISBN  9780815300786 .
• Нойснер, Джейкоб , изд. (1993). Раввинат в Америке: изменение древнего призвания . Иудаизм в Америке времен холодной войны, 1945–1990, т. 1, с. 10. Нью-Йорк; Лондон: Garland Publ. ISBN  9780815300823 .
• Рудавский, Дэвид (1979) [1967]. Современные еврейские религиозные движения: история эмансипации и унижения (3-е изд.). Нью-Йорк: Дом Бермана. стр. 271–402. ISBN  0-87441-286-2 .
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• Ребхум, Узи (2016). Евреи и американский религиозный ландшафт . Нью-Йорк: Издательство Колумбийского университета. ISBN  9780231178266 .
• Сарна, Джонатан Д. (2004). Американский иудаизм: история . Нью-Хейвен, Коннектикут: Издательство Йельского университета. ISBN  978-0-300-10197-3 .
• Шокейд, Моше (1995). Гей-синагога в Нью-Йорке. Нью-Йорк: Издательство Колумбийского университета. ( Перепечатка : Филадельфия, Пенсильвания: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002).
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• Вертхаймер, Джек , изд. (1987). Американская синагога: преобразованное святилище . Кембридж: Издательство Кембриджского университета. ISBN  0-521-33290-7 .
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Другие темы

• Антлер, Джойс, изд. (1998). Говоря в ответ: образы еврейских женщин в американской популярной культуре.
• Коэн, Стивен Мартин (1983). Американская современность и еврейская идентичность . Лондон: Тависток Пабл. ISBN  0422777501 .
• Катлер, Ирвинг. (1995). Евреи Чикаго: от штетла до пригорода.
• Диннерштейн, Леонард (1994). Антисемитизм в Америке .
• Хейлман, Сэмюэл К. Портрет американских евреев: последняя половина 20-го века .
• Кобрин, Ребекка, изд. Выбранная столица: встреча евреев с американским капитализмом (Rutgers University Press; 2012) 311 страниц; научные очерки о спиртосодержащей промышленности, недвижимости и металлоломе, а также о евреях как профсоюзных организаторах.
• Либман, Чарльз С. (2001). Амбивалентный американский еврей: политика, религия и семья в американской еврейской жизни , Varda Books. ISBN   1-59045-039-6
• Либман, Чарльз С .; Аргов, Мерказ (2001). Программа исследований для американских евреев . Рамат-Ган: Университет Бар-Илан, факультет политических исследований.
• Мур, Дебора Дэш. В золотые города: преследование американской еврейской мечты в Майами и Лос-Анджелесе, 1994 г.
• Мур, Дебора Дэш. Евреи-солдаты: как Вторая мировая война изменила поколение (2006).
• Моравска, Ева (1999). Небезопасное процветание: евреи из маленьких городков в индустриальной Америке, 1890–1940 гг . Издательство Принстонского университета.
• Новик, Питер . Холокост в американской жизни. 1999.
• Ребхум, Узи; Ари, Лилах Лев (2010). Американские израильтяне: миграция, транснационализм и диаспорическая идентичность . Лейден: Брилл. ISBN  978-90-04-18388-9 .
• Ваксман, Хаим И. (1989). Американская алия: портрет инновационного миграционного движения . Детройт, Мичиган: Издательство Государственного университета Уэйна. ISBN  0-8143-1936-Х .

Первоисточники

• Американский еврейский комитет. Американский еврейский ежегодник: Ежегодный отчет еврейской цивилизации (ежегодный, 1899–2012+), полный текст онлайн, 1899–2007 гг .; длинные сложные эссе о статусе евреев в США и во всем мире; стандартный первоисточник, используемый историками.
• Блау, Джозеф Леон ; Барон, Сало Виттмайер , ред. (1963). Евреи Соединенных Штатов, 1790–1840: Документальная история . Том. 1. Нью-Йорк; Филадельфия, Пенсильвания: Издательство Колумбийского университета; Еврейское издательское общество.
• Маркус, Джейкоб Рейдер, изд. Американская еврейка, документальная история (Ктав 1981).
• Шаппес, Моррис Урман, изд. Документальная история евреев в Соединенных Штатах, 1654–1875 гг. (Citadel Press, 1952).
• Стауб, Майкл Э. изд. Еврейские 1960-е: Американский справочник, Издательство Университета Новой Англии, 2004; 371 стр. ISBN   1-58465-417-1 онлайн-обзор
• Венгер, Бет С. (2007). Американцы-евреи: три столетия еврейских голосов в Америке . Нью-Йорк: Даблдей. ISBN  978-0-385-52139-0 . OCLC   144774311 .

Внешние ссылки

• Американское еврейское историческое общество
• Американские еврейские архивы
• Американский еврейский конгресс
• Американская еврейская всемирная служба
• Еврейские федерации Северной Америки
• Мое еврейское образование: американская еврейская жизнь
• Рост еврейского населения в Соединенных Штатах - Литературный дайджест (1922)
• Берманский еврейский банк данных @ Еврейские федерации Северной Америки