Иерусалим
Иерусалим
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Nicknames:
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  Jerusalem | |
| Coordinates: 31°46′44″N 35°13′32″E / 31.77889°N 35.22556°E | |
| Administered by | Israel |
| Claimed by | Israel and Palestine[note 1] |
| Israeli district | Jerusalem |
| Palestinian governorate | Quds |
| Gihon Spring settlement | 3000–2800 BCE |
| City of David | c. 1000 BCE |
| Present Old City walls built | 1541 |
| East-West Jerusalem division | 1948 |
| Israeli annexation of East Jerusalem | 1967 |
| Jerusalem Law | 1980 |
| Government | |
| • Type | Mayor–council |
| • Body | Jerusalem Municipality |
| • Mayor | Moshe Lion (Likud) |
| Area | |
| • Metropolis | 125,156 dunams (125.156 km2 or 48.323 sq mi) |
| • Metro | 652,000 dunams (652 km2 or 252 sq mi) |
| Elevation | 754 m (2,474 ft) |
| Population (2022) | |
| • Metropolis | 981,711 |
| • Density | 7,800/km2 (20,000/sq mi) |
| • Metro | 1,253,900 |
| Demonyms |
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| Time zone | UTC+02:00 (IST, PST) |
| • Summer (DST) | UTC+03:00 (IDT, PDT) |
| Postal code | 9XXXXXX |
| Area code | +972-2 |
| Website | jerusalem.muni.il |
| Official name | Old City of Jerusalem and its Walls |
| Type | Cultural |
| Criteria | ii, iii, vi |
| Designated | 1981 |
| Reference no. | 148 |
| Region | Arab States |
| Endangered | 1982–present |
| Part of a series on |
| Jerusalem |
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Иерусалим ( / dʒ ə ˈ r uː s el ə m ˌ - z ə - / jə- ROO ləm, -zə- ; иврит : יְרוּשָׁלַיִם Йерушалаим -sə - произносится [jeʁuʃaˈlajim] ; Арабский : Кудс аль- , произносится [ал.кудс] , местное произношение: [il.ʔuds] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ примечание 2 ] — город в Южном Леванте , на плато в Иудейских горах между Средиземным и Мертвым морями . Это один из старейших городов в мире , который считается священным для трех основных авраамических религий — иудаизма , христианства и ислама . И Государство Израиль , и Государство Палестина называют Иерусалим своей столицей . Израиль сохраняет там свои основные правительственные институты, и Государство Палестина в конечном итоге рассматривает его как центр своей власти. Ни одно из этих утверждений не получило широкого признания на международном уровне . [ примечание 3 ] [ 8 ]
Throughout its long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed at least twice, besieged 23 times, captured and recaptured 44 times, and attacked 52 times.[9] The part of Jerusalem called the City of David shows first signs of settlement in the 4th millennium BCE, in the shape of encampments of nomadic shepherds.[10] During the Canaanite period (14th century BCE), Jerusalem was named as Urusalim on ancient Egyptian tablets, probably meaning "City of Shalem" after a Canaanite deity. During the Israelite period, significant construction activity in Jerusalem began in the 10th century BCE (Iron Age II), and by the 9th century BCE, the city had developed into the religious and administrative center of the Kingdom of Judah.[11] In 1538, the city walls were rebuilt for a last time around Jerusalem under Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire. Today those walls define the Old City, which since the 19th century has been divided into four quarters – the Armenian, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim quarters.[12][13] The Old City became a World Heritage Site in 1981, and is on the List of World Heritage in Danger.[14] Since 1860, Jerusalem has grown far beyond the Old City's boundaries. In 2022, Jerusalem had a population of some 971,800 residents, of which almost 60% were Jews and almost 40% Palestinians.[15][note 4] In 2020, the population was 951,100, of which Jews comprised 570,100 (59.9%), Muslims 353,800 (37.2%), Christians 16,300 (1.7%), and 10,800 unclassified (1.1%).[17]
According to the Hebrew Bible, King David conquered the city from the Jebusites and established it as the capital of the United Kingdom of Israel, and his son, King Solomon, commissioned the building of the First Temple.[note 5] Modern scholars argue that Jews branched out of the Canaanite peoples and culture through the development of a distinct monolatrous—and later monotheistic—religion centered on El/Yahweh.[19][20] These foundational events, straddling the dawn of the 1st millennium BCE, assumed central symbolic importance for the Jewish people.[21][22] The sobriquet of holy city (Hebrew: עיר הקודש, romanized: 'Ir ha-Qodesh) was probably attached to Jerusalem in post-exilic times.[23][24][25] The holiness of Jerusalem in Christianity, conserved in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible,[26] which Christians adopted as the Old Testament,[27] was reinforced by the New Testament account of Jesus's crucifixion and resurrection there. Meanwhile, in Sunni Islam, Jerusalem is the third-holiest city, after Mecca and Medina.[28][29] The city was the first standard direction for Muslim prayers,[30] and in Islamic tradition, Muhammad made his Night Journey there in 621, ascending to heaven where he spoke to God, per the Quran.[31][32] As a result, despite having an area of only 0.9 km2 (3⁄8 sq mi),[33] the Old City is home to many sites of seminal religious importance, among them the Temple Mount with its Western Wall, Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque, and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.
At present, the status of Jerusalem remains one of the core issues in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, West Jerusalem was among the areas incorporated into Israel, while East Jerusalem, including the Old City, was occupied and annexed by Jordan. Israel occupied East Jerusalem from Jordan during the 1967 Six-Day War and subsequently annexed it into the city's municipality, together with additional surrounding territory.[note 6] One of Israel's Basic Laws, the 1980 Jerusalem Law, refers to Jerusalem as the country's undivided capital. All branches of the Israeli government are located in Jerusalem, including the Knesset (Israel's parliament), the residences of the Prime Minister and President, and the Supreme Court. The international community rejects the annexation as illegal and regards East Jerusalem as Palestinian territory occupied by Israel.[37][38][39][40]
Etymology and names
Etymology
The name "Jerusalem" is variously etymologized to mean "foundation (Semitic yry' 'to found, to lay a cornerstone') of the pagan god Shalem";[41][42] the god Shalem was thus the original tutelary deity of the Bronze Age city.[43]
Shalim or Shalem was the name of the god of dusk in the Canaanite religion, whose name is based on the same root S-L-M from which the Hebrew word for "peace" is derived (Shalom in Hebrew, cognate with Arabic Salam).[44][45] The name thus offered itself to etymologizations such as "The City of Peace",[42][46] "Abode of Peace",[47][48] "Dwelling of Peace" ("founded in safety"),[49] or "Vision of Peace" in some Christian authors.[50]
The ending -ayim indicates the dual, thus leading to the suggestion that the name Yerushalayim refers to the fact that the city initially sat on two hills.[51][52]
Ancient Egyptian sources
The Execration Texts of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt (c. 19th century BCE), which refer to a city called rwšꜣlmm or ꜣwšꜣmm, variously transcribed as Rušalimum, or Urušalimum,[53][54] may indicate Jerusalem.[55][56] Alternatively, the Amarna letters of Abdi-Heba (1330s BCE), which reference an Úrušalim, may be the earliest mention of the city.[57][58][59]
Hebrew Bible and Jewish sources
The form Yerushalem or Yerushalayim first appears in the Bible, in the Book of Joshua. According to a Midrash, the name is a combination of two names united by God, Yireh ("the abiding place", the name given by Abraham to the place where he planned to sacrifice his son) and Shalem ("Place of Peace", the name given by high priest Shem).[60]
Oldest written mention of Jerusalem
One of the earliest extra-biblical Hebrew writing of the word Jerusalem is dated to the sixth or seventh century BCE[61][62] and was discovered in Khirbet Beit Lei near Beit Guvrin in 1961. The inscription states: "I am Yahweh thy God, I will accept the cities of Judah and I will redeem Jerusalem",[63][64][65] or as other scholars suggest: "Yahweh is the God of the whole earth. The mountains of Judah belong to him, to the God of Jerusalem".[66][67] An older example on papyrus is known from the previous century.[68]
In extra-biblical inscriptions, the earliest known example of the -ayim ending was discovered on a column about 3 km west of ancient Jerusalem, dated to the first century BCE.[68]
Jebus, Zion, City of David
An ancient settlement of Jerusalem, founded as early as the Bronze Age on the hill above the Gihon Spring, was, according to the Bible, named Jebus.[69][70][71] Called the "Fortress of Zion" (metsudat Zion), it was renamed as the "City of David",[72] and was known by this name in antiquity.[73][74] Another name, "Zion", initially referred to a distinct part of the city, but later came to signify the city as a whole, and afterwards to represent the whole biblical Land of Israel.
Greek, Roman and Byzantine names
In Greek and Latin, the city's name was transliterated Hierosolyma (Greek: Ἱεροσόλυμα; in Greek hieròs, ἱερός, means holy), although the city was renamed Aelia Capitolina for part of the Roman period of its history.
Salem
The Aramaic Apocryphon of Genesis of the Dead Sea Scrolls (1QapGen 22:13) equates Jerusalem with the earlier "Salem" (שלם), said to be the kingdom of Melchizedek in Genesis 14.[75] Other early Hebrew sources,[76] early Christian renderings of the verse[77] and targumim,[78] however, put Salem in Northern Israel near Shechem (Sichem), now Nablus, a city of some importance in early sacred Hebrew writing.[79] Possibly the redactor of the Apocryphon of Genesis wanted to dissociate Melchizedek from the area of Shechem, which at the time was in possession of the Samaritans.[80] However that may be, later Rabbinic sources also equate Salem with Jerusalem, mainly to link Melchizedek to later Temple traditions.[81]
Arabic names
Originally titled Bayt al-Maqdis, today, Jerusalem is most commonly known in Arabic as القُدس, transliterated as al-Quds and meaning "the holy" or "the holy sanctuary",[47][48] cognate with Hebrew: הקדש, romanized: ha-qodesh. The name is possibly a shortened form of مدينة القُدس Madīnat al-Quds "city of the holy sanctuary" after the Hebrew nickname with the same meaning, Ir ha-Qodesh (עיר הקדש). The ق (Q) is pronounced either with a voiceless uvular plosive (/q/), as in Classical Arabic, or with a glottal stop (ʔ) as in Levantine Arabic.[7] Official Israeli government policy mandates that أُورُشَلِيمَ, transliterated as Ūrušalīm, which is the name frequently used in Christian translations of the Bible into Arabic,[82][83] be used as the Arabic language name for the city in conjunction with القُدس, giving أُورُشَلِيمَ-القُدس, Ūrušalīm-al-Quds.[84] Palestinian Arab families who hail from this city are often called "Qudsi" (قُدسي) or "Maqdasi" (مقدسي), while Palestinian Muslim Jerusalemites may use these terms as a demonym.[85]
History
Given the city's central position in both Jewish nationalism (Zionism) and Palestinian nationalism, the selectivity required to summarize some 5,000 years of inhabited history is often influenced by ideological bias or background.[86] Israeli or Jewish nationalists claim a right to the city based on Jewish indigeneity to the land, particularly their origins in and descent from the Israelites, for whom Jerusalem is their capital, and their yearning for return.[87][88] In contrast, Palestinian nationalists claim the right to the city based on modern Palestinians' longstanding presence and descent from many different peoples who have settled or lived in the region over the centuries. Another reason for their claim, which is also supported by the Arab and Muslim world, is significance of Jerusalem in Islam.[89][90] Both sides claim the history of the city has been politicized by the other in order to strengthen their relative claims to the city,[91][92][93] and that this is borne out by the different focuses the different writers place on the various events and eras in the city's history.
Overview of Jerusalem's historical periods (by rulers)
Prehistory
The first archaeological evidence of human presence in the area comes in the form of flints dated to between 6000 and 7000 years ago,[10] with ceramic remains appearing during the Chalcolithic period, and the first signs of permanent settlement appearing in the Early Bronze Age in 3000–2800 BCE.[94][95]
Bronze Age: Canaanite Jerusalem
The earliest evidence of city fortifications appear in the Mid- to Late Bronze Age and could date to around the 18th century BCE.[96] By around 1550–1200 BCE, Jerusalem was the capital of an Egyptian vassal city-state,[97] a modest settlement governing a few outlying villages and pastoral areas, with a small Egyptian garrison and ruled by appointees such as king Abdi-Heba.[98] At the time of Seti I (r. 1290–1279 BCE) and Ramesses II (r. 1279–1213 BCE), major construction took place as prosperity increased.[99]
The city's inhabitants during the Bronze Age were Canaanites.
Iron Age: a mainly Israelite city
Precise absolute dates recently obtained from organic material show that Jerusalem was relatively densely inhabited during the 12th to 10th centuries BCE, which pushes the scales toward it being a city rather than a village, this being a strongly debated issue among scholars.[100][101]
Jerusalem's residents through most of the Iron Age were Israelites, who are believed by scholars to have evolved from among the Canaanites[19][20] or the Shasu[102] via the development of a distinct Yahweh-centric monotheistic belief system[dubious – discuss].
Archaeological remains from the ancient Israelite period include the Siloam Tunnel, a rock-hewn aqueduct built by Judahite king Hezekiah and once containing the so called Siloam inscription, written in ancient Hebrew;[103] the so-called Broad Wall, a defensive fortification built in the 8th century BCE by King Uzziah;[101] the Silwan necropolis (9th–7th c. BCE) with the Monolith of Silwan and the Tomb of the Royal Steward, which were decorated with monumental Hebrew inscriptions;[104] and the so-called Israelite Tower, remnants of ancient fortifications, built from large, sturdy rocks with carved cornerstones.[105] A huge water reservoir dating from this period was discovered in 2012 near Robinson's Arch, indicating the existence of a densely built-up quarter across the area west of the Temple Mount during the Kingdom of Judah.[106]
Recent work allowed to securely date the start of a major westward expansion of the city already to the 9th century BCE.[100][101] When the Assyrians conquered the Kingdom of Israel in 722 BCE, Jerusalem was strengthened by a great influx of refugees from the northern kingdom. During Hezekiah's reign, the city had no fewer than 25,000 inhabitants and covered 25 acres (10 hectares).[107]
In 587–586 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar II of the Neo-Babylonian Empire conquered Jerusalem after a prolonged siege, and then systematically destroyed the city, including Solomon's Temple.[108] The Kingdom of Judah was abolished and many were exiled to Babylon. These events mark the end of the First Temple period.[109]
Biblical account
This period, when Canaan formed part of the Egyptian empire, corresponds in biblical accounts to Joshua's invasion,[110] but almost all scholars agree that the Book of Joshua holds little historical value for early Israel.[111]
In the Bible, Jerusalem is defined as lying within territory allocated to the tribe of Benjamin[112] though still inhabited by Jebusites. David is said to have conquered these in the siege of Jebus, and transferred his capital from Hebron to Jerusalem which then became the capital of a United Kingdom of Israel,[113] and one of its several religious centres.[114] The choice was perhaps dictated by the fact that Jerusalem did not form part of Israel's tribal system, and was thus suited to serve as the centre of its confederation.[99] Opinion is divided over whether the so-called Large Stone Structure and the nearby Stepped Stone Structure may be identified with King David's palace, or dates to a later period.[115][116]
According to the Bible, King David reigned for 40 years[117] and was succeeded by his son Solomon,[118] who built the Holy Temple on Mount Moriah. Solomon's Temple (later known as the First Temple), went on to play a pivotal role in Jewish religion as the repository of the Ark of the Covenant.[119] On Solomon's death, ten of the northern tribes of Israel broke with the United Monarchy to form their own nation, with its kings, prophets, priests, traditions relating to religion, capitals and temples in northern Israel. The southern tribes, together with the Aaronid priesthood, remained in Jerusalem, with the city becoming the capital of the Kingdom of Judah.[120][121]
Classical antiquity
Second Temple period
In 538 BCE, the Achaemenid King Cyrus the Great invited the Jews of Babylon to return to Judah to rebuild the Temple.[122][123] Construction of the Second Temple was completed in 516 BCE, during the reign of Darius the Great, 70 years after the destruction of the First Temple.[124][125]
Sometime soon after 485 BCE Jerusalem was besieged, conquered and largely destroyed by a coalition of neighbouring states.[126] In about 445 BCE, King Artaxerxes I of Persia issued a decree allowing the city (including its walls) to be rebuilt.[127][better source needed] Jerusalem resumed its role as capital of Judah and centre of Jewish worship.
Many Jewish tombs from the Second Temple period have been unearthed in Jerusalem. One example, discovered north of the Old City, contains human remains in a 1st-century CE ossuary decorated with the Aramaic inscription "Simon the Temple Builder".[128] The Tomb of Abba, also located north of the Old City, bears an Aramaic inscription with Paleo-Hebrew letters reading: "I, Abba, son of the priest Eleaz(ar), son of Aaron the high (priest), Abba, the oppressed and the persecuted, who was born in Jerusalem, and went into exile into Babylonia and brought (back to Jerusalem) Mattathi(ah), son of Jud(ah), and buried him in a cave which I bought by deed."[129]
The Tomb of Benei Hezir located in Kidron Valley is decorated by monumental Doric columns and Hebrew inscription, identifying it as the burial site of Second Temple priests. The Tombs of the Sanhedrin, an underground complex of 63 rock-cut tombs, is located in a public park in the northern Jerusalem neighbourhood of Sanhedria. These tombs, probably reserved for members of the Sanhedrin[130][131] and inscribed by ancient Hebrew and Aramaic writings, are dated to between 100 BCE and 100 CE.
When Alexander the Great conquered the Achaemenid Empire, Jerusalem and Judea came under Macedonian control, eventually falling to the Ptolemaic dynasty under Ptolemy I. In 198 BCE, Ptolemy V Epiphanes lost Jerusalem and Judea to the Seleucids under Antiochus III. The Seleucid attempt to recast Jerusalem as a Hellenized city-state came to a head in 168 BCE with the successful Maccabean revolt of Mattathias and his five sons against Antiochus IV Epiphanes, and their establishment of the Hasmonean Kingdom in 152 BCE with Jerusalem as its capital.
In 63 BCE, Pompey the Great intervened in a struggle for the Hasmonean throne and captured Jerusalem, extending the influence of the Roman Republic over Judea.[132] Following a short invasion by Parthians, backing the rival Hasmonean rulers, Judea became a scene of struggle between pro-Roman and pro-Parthian forces, eventually leading to the emergence of an Edomite named Herod. As Rome became stronger, it installed Herod as a client king of the Jews. Herod the Great, as he was known, devoted himself to developing and beautifying the city. He built walls, towers and palaces, and expanded the Temple Mount, buttressing the courtyard with blocks of stone weighing up to 100 tons. Under Herod, the area of the Temple Mount doubled in size.[118][133][134] Shortly after Herod's death, in 6 CE Judea came under direct Roman rule as the Iudaea Province,[135] although the Herodian dynasty through Agrippa II remained client kings of neighbouring territories until 96 CE.
Roman rule over Jerusalem and Judea was challenged in the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), which ended with a Roman victory. Early on, the city was devastated by a brutal civil war between several Jewish factions fighting for control of the city. In 70 CE, the Romans destroyed Jerusalem and the Second Temple.[136][137][138][139][140] The contemporary Jewish historian Josephus wrote that the city "was so thoroughly razed to the ground by those that demolished it to its foundations, that nothing was left that could ever persuade visitors that it had once been a place of habitation."[141] Of the 600,000 (Tacitus) or 1,000,000 (Josephus) Jews of Jerusalem, all of them either died of starvation, were killed or were sold into slavery.[142] Roman rule was again challenged during the Bar Kokhba revolt, beginning in 132 CE and suppressed by the Romans in 135 CE. More recent research indicates that the Romans had founded Aelia Capitolina before the outbreak of the revolt, and found no evidence for Bar Kokhba ever managing to hold the city.[143]
Jerusalem reached a peak in size and population at the end of the Second Temple Period, when the city covered two km2 (3⁄4 sq mi) and had a population of 200,000.[144][133]
Late Antiquity
Following the Bar Kokhba revolt, Emperor Hadrian combined Iudaea Province with neighbouring provinces under the new name of Syria Palaestina, replacing the name of Judea.[145] The city was renamed Aelia Capitolina,[136][146] and rebuilt it in the style of a typical Roman town. Jews were prohibited from entering the city on pain of death, except for one day each year, during the holiday of Tisha B'Av. Taken together, these measures,[147][144][148] which also affected Jewish Christians,[149] essentially "secularized" the city.[150] Historical sources and archaeological evidence indicate that the rebuilt city was now inhabited by veterans of the Roman military and immigrants from the western parts of the empire.[151]
The ban against Jews was maintained until the 7th century,[152] though Christians would soon be granted an exemption: during the 4th century, the Roman emperor Constantine I ordered the construction of Christian holy sites in the city, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Burial remains from the Byzantine period are exclusively Christian, suggesting that the population of Jerusalem in Byzantine times probably consisted only of Christians.[153]
In the 5th century, the eastern continuation of the Roman Empire, ruled from the recently renamed Constantinople, maintained control of the city. Within the span of a few decades, Jerusalem shifted from Byzantine to Persian rule, then back to Roman-Byzantine dominion. Following Sassanid Khosrau II's early 7th century push through Syria, his generals Shahrbaraz and Shahin attacked Jerusalem (Persian: Dej Houdkh) aided by the Jews of Palaestina Prima, who had risen up against the Byzantines.[154]
In the Siege of Jerusalem of 614, after 21 days of relentless siege warfare, Jerusalem was captured. Byzantine chronicles relate that the Sassanids and Jews slaughtered tens of thousands of Christians in the city, many at the Mamilla Pool,[155][156] and destroyed their monuments and churches, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. This episode has been the subject of much debate between historians.[157] The conquered city would remain in Sassanid hands for some fifteen years until the Byzantine emperor Heraclius reconquered it in 629.[158]
Middle Ages
Early Muslim period
After the Muslim conquest of the Levant, Byzantine Jerusalem was taken by Umar ibn al-Khattab in 638 CE.[161] Among the first Muslims, it was referred to as Madinat bayt al-Maqdis ("City of the Temple"),[162] a name restricted to the Temple Mount. The rest of the city "was called Iliya, reflecting the Roman name given the city following the destruction of 70 CE: Aelia Capitolina".[163] Later the Temple Mount became known as al-Haram al-Sharif, "The Noble Sanctuary", while the city around it became known as Bayt al-Maqdis,[164] and later still, al-Quds al-Sharif "The Holy, Noble".
The Islamization of Jerusalem began in the first year A.H. (623 CE), when Muslims were instructed to face the city while performing their daily prostrations and, according to Muslim religious tradition, Muhammad's night journey and ascension to heaven took place. After 13 years, the direction of prayer was changed to Mecca.[165][166] In 638 CE the Islamic Caliphate extended its dominion to Jerusalem.[167] With the Muslim conquest, Jews were allowed back into the city.[168] The Rashidun caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab signed a treaty with Christian Patriarch of Jerusalem Sophronius, assuring him that Jerusalem's Christian holy places and population would be protected under Muslim rule.[169]
Christian-Arab tradition records that, when led to pray at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, one of the holiest sites for Christians, the caliph Umar refused to pray in the church so that Muslims would not request conversion of the church to a mosque.[170] He prayed outside the church, where the Mosque of Umar (Omar) stands to this day, opposite the entrance to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. According to the Gaullic bishop Arculf, who lived in Jerusalem from 679 to 688, the Mosque of Umar was a rectangular wooden structure built over ruins which could accommodate 3,000 worshipers.[171]
When the Arab armies under Umar went to Bayt Al-Maqdes in 637 CE, they searched for the site of al-masjid al-aqsa, "the farthest place of prayer/mosque", that was mentioned in the Quran and Hadith according to Islamic beliefs. Contemporary Arabic and Hebrew sources say the site was full of rubbish, and that Arabs and Jews cleaned it.[172] The Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik commissioned the construction of a shrine on the Temple Mount, now known as the Dome of the Rock, in the late 7th century.[173] Two of the city's most-distinguished Arab citizens of the 10th-century were Al-Muqaddasi, the geographer, and Al-Tamimi, the physician. Al-Muqaddasi writes that Abd al-Malik built the edifice on the Temple Mount in order to compete in grandeur with Jerusalem's monumental churches.[171]
Over the next four hundred years, Jerusalem's prominence diminished as Arab powers in the region vied for control of the city.[174] Jerusalem was captured in 1073 by the Seljuk Turkish commander Atsız.[175] After Atsız was killed, the Seljuk prince Tutush I granted the city to Artuk Bey, another Seljuk commander. After Artuk's death in 1091 his sons Sökmen and Ilghazi governed in the city up to 1098 when the Fatimids recaptured the city.
A messianic Karaite movement to gather in Jerusalem took place at the turn of the millennium, leading to a "Golden Age" of Karaite scholarship there, which was only terminated by the Crusades.[176]
Crusader/Ayyubid period
In 1099, the Fatimid ruler expelled the native Christian population before Jerusalem was besieged by the soldiers of the First Crusade. After taking the solidly defended city by assault, the Crusaders massacred most of its Muslim and Jewish inhabitants, and made it the capital of their Kingdom of Jerusalem. The city, which had been virtually emptied, was recolonized by a variegated inflow of Greeks, Bulgarians, Hungarians, Georgians, Armenians, Syrians, Egyptians, Nestorians, Maronites, Jacobite Miaphysites, Copts and others, to block the return of the surviving Muslims and Jews. The north-eastern quarter was repopulated with Eastern Christians from the Transjordan.[177] As a result, by 1099 Jerusalem's population had climbed back to some 30,000.[178][failed verification]
In 1187, the city was wrested from the Crusaders by Saladin who permitted Jews and Muslims to return and settle in the city.[179] Under the terms of surrender, once ransomed, 60,000 Franks were expelled. The Eastern Christian populace was permitted to stay.[180] Under the Ayyubid dynasty of Saladin, a period of huge investment began in the construction of houses, markets, public baths, and pilgrim hostels as well as the establishment of religious endowments. However, for most of the 13th century, Jerusalem declined to the status of a village due to city's fall of strategic value and Ayyubid internecine struggles.[181]
From 1229 to 1244, Jerusalem peacefully reverted to Christian control as a result of a 1229 treaty agreed between the crusading Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and al-Kamil, the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt, that ended the Sixth Crusade.[182][183][184][185][186] The Ayyubids retained control of the Muslim holy places, and Arab sources suggest that Frederick was not permitted to restore Jerusalem's fortifications.
In 1244, Jerusalem was sacked by the Khwarezmian Tatars, who decimated the city's Christian population and drove out the Jews.[187] The Khwarezmian Tatars were driven out by the Ayyubids in 1247.
Mamluk period
From 1260[188] to 1516/17, Jerusalem was ruled by the Mamluks. In the wider region and until around 1300, many clashes occurred between the Mamluks on one side, and the crusaders and the Mongols, on the other side. The area also suffered from many earthquakes and black plague.[189] When Nachmanides visited in 1267 he found only two Jewish families, in a population of 2,000, 300 of whom were Christians, in the city.[190] The well-known and far-traveled lexicographer Fairuzabadi (1329–1414) spent ten years in Jerusalem.[191]
The 13th to 15th centuries was a period of frequent building activity in the city, as evidenced by the 90 remaining structures from this time.[188] The city was also a significant site of Mamluk architectural patronage. The types of structures built included madrasas, libraries, hospitals, caravanserais, fountains (or sabils), and public baths.[188] Much of the building activity was concentrated around the edges of the Temple Mount or Haram al-Sharif.[188] Old gates to the Haram lost importance and new gates were built,[188] while significant parts of the northern and western porticoes along the edge of the Temple Mount plaza were built or rebuilt in this period.[192]
Tankiz, the Mamluk amir in charge of Syria during the reign of al-Nasir Muhammad, built a new market called Suq al-Qattatin (Cotton Market) in 1336–7, along with the gate known as Bab al-Qattanin (Cotton Gate), which gave access to the Temple Mount from this market.[188][192] The late Mamluk sultan al-Ashraf Qaytbay also took interest in the city. He commissioned the building of the Madrasa al-Ashrafiyya, completed in 1482, and the nearby Sabil of Qaytbay, built shortly after in 1482; both were located on the Temple Mount.[188][192] Qaytbay's monuments were the last major Mamluk constructions in the city.[192]: 589–612
Modern era
Ottoman period (16th–19th centuries)
In 1517, Jerusalem and its environs fell to the Ottoman Turks, who generally remained in control until 1917.[179] Jerusalem enjoyed a prosperous period of renewal and peace under Suleiman the Magnificent—including the rebuilding of magnificent walls around the Old City. Throughout much of Ottoman rule, Jerusalem remained a provincial, if religiously important centre, and did not straddle the main trade route between Damascus and Cairo.[193] The English reference book Modern history or the present state of all nations, written in 1744, stated that "Jerusalem is still reckoned the capital city of Palestine, though much fallen from its ancient grandeaur".[194]
The Ottomans brought many innovations: modern postal systems run by the various consulates and regular stagecoach and carriage services were among the first signs of modernization in the city.[195] In the mid 19th century, the Ottomans constructed the first paved road from Jaffa to Jerusalem, and by 1892 the railroad had reached the city.[195]
With the annexation of Jerusalem by forces under Muhammad Ali in 1831, foreign missions and consulates began to establish a foothold in the city. In 1836, Ibrahim Pasha, son of Muhammad Ali Pasha, allowed Jerusalem's Jewish residents to restore four major synagogues, among them the Hurva.[196] In the countrywide Peasants' Revolt, Qasim al-Ahmad led his forces from Nablus and attacked Jerusalem, aided by the Abu Ghosh clan, and entered the city on 31 May 1834. The Christians and Jews of Jerusalem were subjected to attacks. Ibrahim's army routed Qasim's forces in Jerusalem the following month.[197]
Ottoman rule was reinstated in 1840. Many Egyptian Muslims remained in Jerusalem and Jews from Algiers and North Africa began to settle in the city in growing numbers.[196] In the 1840s and 1850s, the international powers began a tug-of-war in Palestine as they sought to extend their protection over the region's religious minorities, a struggle carried out mainly through consular representatives in Jerusalem.[198] According to the Prussian consul, the population in 1845 was 16,410, with 7,120 Jews, 5,000 Muslims, 3,390 Christians, 800 Turkish soldiers and 100 Europeans.[196] The volume of Christian pilgrims increased under the Ottomans, doubling the city's population around Easter time.[199]
In the 1860s, new neighbourhoods began to develop outside the Old City walls to house pilgrims and relieve the intense overcrowding and poor sanitation inside the city. The Russian Compound and Mishkenot Sha'ananim were founded in 1860,[200] followed by many others that included Mahane Israel (1868), Nahalat Shiv'a (1869), German Colony (1872), Beit David (1873), Mea Shearim (1874), Shimon HaZadiq (1876), Beit Ya'aqov (1877), Abu Tor (1880s), American-Swedish Colony (1882), Yemin Moshe (1891), and Mamilla, Wadi al-Joz around the turn of the century. In 1867 an American Missionary reports an estimated population of Jerusalem of 'above' 15,000, with 4,000 to 5,000 Jews and 6,000 Muslims. Every year there were 5,000 to 6,000 Russian Christian Pilgrims.[201] In 1872 Jerusalem became the centre of a special administrative district, independent of the Syria Vilayet and under the direct authority of Istanbul called the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem.[202]
The great number of Christian orphans resulting from the 1860 civil war in Mount Lebanon and the Damascus massacre led in the same year to the opening of the German Protestant Syrian Orphanage, better known as the Schneller Orphanage after its founder.[203] Until the 1880s there were no formal Jewish orphanages in Jerusalem, as families generally took care of each other. In 1881 the Diskin Orphanage was founded in Jerusalem with the arrival of Jewish children orphaned by a Russian pogrom. Other orphanages founded in Jerusalem at the beginning of the 20th century were Zion Blumenthal Orphanage (1900) and General Israel Orphan's Home for Girls (1902).[204]
Jewish immigration to Palestine
During the reign of Sultan Bayezid II (1481–1512), the gates of Ottoman Turkey were opened to the Jews expelled from Spain, and in the days of Sultan Selim I, they were allowed to enter the territories he conquered, including Palestine.[205] Rabbi Moses Bassola, who visited Palestine in 1521–1522, testified that, largely due to this immigration, the Jewish community in Jerusalem grew and the deportees from Spain became the majority of the Jewish population in Jerusalem (which at that time numbered about 300 families).[205]
-
Tower of David citadel and the Ottoman walls -
Ben-Zakai synagogue, photo taken in 1893 -
Guesthouse in Mishkenot Sha'ananim, the first Jewish neighborhood built outside the walls of the Old City of Jerusalem (1860), on a hill directly across from Mount Zion
British Mandate (1917–1948)
In 1917 after the Battle of Jerusalem, the British Army, led by General Edmund Allenby, captured the city.[207] In 1922, the League of Nations at the Conference of Lausanne entrusted the United Kingdom to administer Palestine, neighbouring Transjordan, and Iraq beyond it.
From 1922 to 1948 the total population of the city rose from 52,000 to 165,000, comprising two-thirds Jews and one-third Arabs (Muslims and Christians).[208] Relations between Arab Christians and Muslims and the growing Jewish population in Jerusalem deteriorated, resulting in recurring unrest. In Jerusalem, in particular, Arab riots occurred in 1920 and in 1929. Under the British, new garden suburbs were built in the western and northern parts of the city[209][210] and institutions of higher learning such as the Hebrew University were founded.[211]
Contemporary era
Divided city: Jordanian and Israeli rule (1948–1967)
 United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine |
| Jerusalem Corpus Separatum |
|---|
As the British Mandate for Palestine was expiring, the 1947 UN Partition Plan recommended "the creation of a special international regime in the City of Jerusalem, constituting it as a corpus separatum under the administration of the UN."[212] The international regime (which also included the city of Bethlehem) was to remain in force for a period of ten years, whereupon a referendum was to be held in which the residents were to decide the future regime of their city.[213] However, this plan was not implemented, as the 1948 war erupted, while the British withdrew from Palestine and Israel declared its independence.[214]
In contradiction to the Partition Plan, which envisioned a city separated from the Arab state and the Jewish state, Israel took control of the area which later would become West Jerusalem, along with major parts of the Arab territory allotted to the future Arab State; Jordan took control of East Jerusalem, along with the West Bank. The war led to displacement of Arab and Jewish populations in the city. The 1,500 residents of the Jewish Quarter of the Old City were expelled and a few hundred taken prisoner when the Arab Legion captured the quarter on 28 May.[215][216] Arab residents of Katamon, Talbiya, and the German Colony were driven from their homes. By the time of the armistice that ended active fighting, Israel had control of 12 of Jerusalem's 15 Arab residential quarters. An estimated minimum of 30,000 people had become refugees.[217][218]
The war of 1948 resulted in the division of Jerusalem, so that the old walled city lay entirely on the Jordanian side of the line. A no-man's land between East and West Jerusalem came into being in November 1948: Moshe Dayan, commander of the Israeli forces in Jerusalem, met with his Jordanian counterpart Abdullah el-Tell in a deserted house in Jerusalem's Musrara neighbourhood and marked out their respective positions: Israel's position in red and Jordan's in green. This rough map, which was not meant as an official one, became the final line in the 1949 Armistice Agreements, which divided the city and left Mount Scopus as an Israeli exclave inside East Jerusalem.[219]
Barbed wire and concrete barriers ran down the centre of the city, passing close by Jaffa Gate on the western side of the old walled city. A crossing point was established at Mandelbaum Gate slightly to the north of the old walled city. Military skirmishes frequently threatened the ceasefire.
After the establishment of the state of Israel, Jerusalem was declared its capital city.[220] Jordan formally annexed East Jerusalem in 1950, subjecting it to Jordanian law, and in 1953 declared it the "second capital" of Jordan.[214][221][222] Only the United Kingdom and Pakistan formally recognized such annexation, which, in regard to Jerusalem, was on a de facto basis.[223] Some scholars argue that the view that Pakistan recognized Jordan's annexation is dubious.[224][225]
After 1948, since the old walled city in its entirety was to the east of the armistice line, Jordan was able to take control of all the holy places therein. While Muslim holy sites were maintained and renovated,[226] contrary to the terms of the armistice agreement, Jews were denied access to Jewish holy sites, many of which were destroyed or desecrated. Jordan allowed only very limited access to Christian holy sites,[227] and restrictions were imposed on the Christian population that led many to leave the city. Of the 58 synagogues in the Old City, half were either razed or converted to stables and hen-houses over the course of the next 19 years, including the Hurva and the Tiferet Yisrael Synagogue. The 3,000-year-old[228] Mount of Olives Jewish Cemetery was desecrated, with gravestones used to build roads, latrines and Jordanian army fortifications. 38,000 graves in the Jewish Cemetery were destroyed, and Jews were forbidden from being buried there.[229][230]
The Western Wall was transformed into an exclusively Muslim holy site associated with al-Buraq.[231] Israeli authorities neglected to protect the tombs in the Muslim Mamilla Cemetery in West Jerusalem, which contains the remains of figures from the early Islamic period,[232] facilitating the creation of a parking lot and public lavatories in 1964.[233] Many other historic and religiously significant buildings were demolished and replaced by modern structures during the Jordanian occupation.[234] During this period, the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque underwent major renovations.[235]
During the 1948 war, the Jewish residents of Eastern Jerusalem were expelled by Jordan's Arab Legion. Jordan allowed Arab Palestinian refugees from the war to settle in the vacated Jewish Quarter, which became known as Harat al-Sharaf.[236] In 1966 the Jordanian authorities relocated 500 of them to the Shua'fat refugee camp as part of plans to turn the Jewish quarter into a public park.[237][238]
-
-
King Hussein of Jordan flying over the Temple Mount in East Jerusalem when it was under Jordanian control, 1965
Israeli rule (1967–present)
In 1967, the Six-Day War erupted between Israel and its Arab neighbors. Jordan joined Egypt and attacked Israeli-held West Jerusalem on the war's second day. After hand-to-hand fighting between Israeli and Jordanian soldiers on the Temple Mount, the Israel Defense Forces occupied East Jerusalem, along with the entire West Bank. On 27 June 1967, three weeks after the war ended, in what Israel terms the reunification of Jerusalem, Israel extended its law and jurisdiction to East Jerusalem, including the city's Christian and Muslim holy sites, along with some nearby West Bank territory which comprised 28 Palestinian villages, incorporating it into the Jerusalem Municipality,[239] although it carefully avoided using the term "annexation".
On 10 July, Foreign Minister Abba Eban explained to the UN Secretary General: "The term 'annexation' which was used by supporters of the vote is not accurate. The steps that were taken [by Israel] relate to the integration of Jerusalem in administrative and municipal areas, and served as a legal basis for the protection of the holy places of Jerusalem."[240] Israel conducted a census of Arab residents in the areas annexed. Residents were given permanent residency status and the option of applying for Israeli citizenship. Since 1967, new Jewish residential areas have mushroomed in the eastern sector, while no new Palestinian neighbourhoods have been created.[241]
Jewish and Christian access to the holy sites inside the old walled city was restored. Israel left the Temple Mount under the jurisdiction of an Islamic waqf, but opened the Western Wall to Jewish access. The Moroccan Quarter, which was located adjacent to the Western Wall, was evacuated and razed[242] to make way for a plaza for those visiting the wall.[243] On 18 April 1968, an expropriation order by the Israeli Ministry of Finance more than doubled the size of the Jewish Quarter, evicting its Arab residents and seizing over 700 buildings of which 105 belonged to Jewish inhabitants prior to the Jordanian occupation of the city.[citation needed] The order designated these areas for public use, but they were intended for Jews alone.[244] The government offered 200 Jordanian dinars to each displaced Arab family.
After the Six-Day War the population of Jerusalem increased by 196%. The Jewish population grew by 155%, while the Arab population grew by 314%. The proportion of the Jewish population fell from 74% in 1967 to 72% in 1980, to 68% in 2000, and to 64% in 2010.[245] Israeli Agriculture Minister Ariel Sharon proposed building a ring of Jewish neighbourhoods around the city's eastern edges. The plan was intended to make East Jerusalem more Jewish and prevent it from becoming part of an urban Palestinian bloc stretching from Bethlehem to Ramallah. On 2 October 1977, the Israeli cabinet approved the plan, and seven neighbourhoods were subsequently built on the city's eastern edges. They became known as the Ring Neighbourhoods. Other Jewish neighbourhoods were built within East Jerusalem, and Israeli Jews also settled in Arab neighbourhoods.[246][247]
In 1993, the Oslo I Accord was signed between Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat. The agreement led to the establishment of the Palestinian Authority. The Jerusalem Governorate was notified by this authority.[248] Only parts of few neighborhoods were allotted to the Palestinian Authority and these peace talks failed to solve the overall problem of Jerusalem.[249]
The annexation of East Jerusalem was met with international criticism. The Israeli Foreign Ministry disputes that the annexation of Jerusalem was a violation of international law.[250][251] The final status of Jerusalem has been one of the most important areas of discord between Palestinian and Israeli negotiators for peace. Areas of discord have included whether the Palestinian flag can be raised over areas of Palestinian custodianship and the specificity of Israeli and Palestinian territorial borders.[252]
Political status
Psalm 122:6;
Pray for the peace of Jerusalem...
From 1923 until 1948, Jerusalem served as the administrative capital of Mandatory Palestine.[253]
From 1949 until 1967, West Jerusalem served as Israel's capital, but was not recognized as such internationally because UN General Assembly Resolution 194 envisaged Jerusalem as an international city. As a result of the Six-Day War in 1967, the whole of Jerusalem came under Israeli control. On 27 June 1967, the government of Levi Eshkol extended Israeli law and jurisdiction to East Jerusalem, but agreed that administration of the Temple Mount compound would be maintained by the Jordanian waqf, under the Jordanian Ministry of Religious Endowments.[254]
In 1988, Israel ordered the closure of Orient House, home of the Arab Studies Society, but also the headquarters of the Palestine Liberation Organization, for security reasons. The building reopened in 1992 as a Palestinian guesthouse.[255][256] The Oslo Accords stated that the final status of Jerusalem would be determined by negotiations with the Palestinian Authority. The accords banned any official Palestinian presence in the city until a final peace agreement, but provided for the opening of a Palestinian trade office in East Jerusalem. The Palestinian Authority regards East Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian state.[257][258]
President Mahmoud Abbas has said that any agreement that did not include East Jerusalem as the capital of Palestine would be unacceptable.[259] Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has similarly stated that Jerusalem would remain the undivided capital of Israel. Due to its proximity to the city, especially the Temple Mount, Abu Dis, a Palestinian suburb of Jerusalem, has been proposed as the future capital of a Palestinian state by Israel. Israel has not incorporated Abu Dis within its security wall around Jerusalem. The Palestinian Authority has built a possible future parliament building for the Palestinian Legislative Council in the town, and its Jerusalem Affairs Offices are all located in Abu Dis.[260]
International status
While the international community regards East Jerusalem, including the entire Old City, as part of the occupied Palestinian territories, neither part, West or East Jerusalem, is recognized as part of the territory of Israel or the State of Palestine.[261][262][263][264] Under the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1947, Jerusalem was envisaged to become a corpus separatum administered by the United Nations. In the war of 1948, the western part of the city was occupied by forces of the nascent state of Israel, while the eastern part was occupied by Jordan. The international community largely considers the legal status of Jerusalem to derive from the partition plan, and correspondingly refuses to recognize Israeli sovereignty over the city.[265]
Status under Israeli rule
Following the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel extended its jurisdiction and administration over East Jerusalem, establishing new municipal borders.
In 2010, Israel approved legislation giving Jerusalem the highest national priority status in Israel. The law prioritized construction throughout the city, and offered grants and tax benefits to residents to make housing, infrastructure, education, employment, business, tourism, and cultural events more affordable. Communications Minister Moshe Kahlon said that the bill sent "a clear, unequivocal political message that Jerusalem will not be divided", and that "all those within the Palestinian and international community who expect the current Israeli government to accept any demands regarding Israel's sovereignty over its capital are mistaken and misleading".[266]
The status of the city, and especially its holy places, remains a core issue in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. The Israeli government has approved building plans in the Muslim Quarter of the Old City[267] in order to expand the Jewish presence in East Jerusalem, while some Islamic leaders have made claims that Jews have no historical connection to Jerusalem, alleging that the 2,500-year-old Western Wall was constructed as part of a mosque.[268][269] Palestinians regard Jerusalem as the capital of the State of Palestine,[270] and the city's borders have been the subject of bilateral talks. A team of experts assembled by the then Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak in 2000 concluded that the city must be divided, since Israel had failed to achieve any of its national aims there.[271]
However, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu said in 2014 that "Jerusalem will never be divided".[272] A poll conducted in June 2013 found that 74% of Israeli Jews reject the idea of a Palestinian capital in any portion of Jerusalem, though 72% of the public regarded it as a divided city.[273] A poll conducted by Palestinian Centre for Public Opinion and American Pechter Middle East Polls for the Council on Foreign Relations, among East Jerusalem Arab residents in 2011 revealed that 39% of East Jerusalem Arab residents would prefer Israeli citizenship contrary to 31% who opted for Palestinian citizenship. According to the poll, 40% of Palestinian residents would prefer to leave their neighbourhoods if they would be placed under Palestinian rule.[274]
Jerusalem as capital of Israel
On 5 December 1949, Israel's first Prime Minister, David Ben-Gurion, proclaimed Jerusalem as Israel's "eternal" and "sacred" capital, and eight days later specified that only the war had "compelled" the Israeli leadership "to establish the seat of Government in Tel Aviv", while "for the State of Israel there has always been and always will be one capital only – Jerusalem the Eternal", and that after the war, efforts had been ongoing for creating the conditions for "the Knesset... returning to Jerusalem."[275] This indeed took place, and since the beginning of 1950 all branches of the Israeli government—legislative, judicial, and executive—have resided there, except for the Ministry of Defense, which is located at HaKirya in Tel Aviv.[276][277] At the time of Ben Gurion's proclamations and the ensuing Knesset vote of 24 January 1950,[277] Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan, and thus the proclamation only applied to West Jerusalem.
In July 1980, Israel passed the Jerusalem Law as Basic Law. The law declared Jerusalem the "complete and united" capital of Israel.[278] The Jerusalem Law was condemned by the international community, which did not recognize Jerusalem as the capital of Israel. The United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 478 on 20 August 1980, which declared that the Jerusalem Law is "a violation of international law", is "null and void and must be rescinded forthwith". Member states were called upon to withdraw their diplomatic representation from Jerusalem.[279]
Following the resolution, 22 of the 24 countries that previously had their embassy in (West) Jerusalem relocated them in Tel Aviv, where many embassies already resided prior to Resolution 478. Costa Rica and El Salvador followed in 2006.[280] There are five embassies—United States, Guatemala, Honduras, Papua-New Guinea and Kosovo —and two consulates located within the city limits of Jerusalem, and two Latin American states maintain embassies in the Jerusalem District town of Mevaseret Zion (Bolivia and Paraguay).[281][282][283][284] There are a number of consulates-general located in Jerusalem, which work primarily either with Israel, or the Palestinian authorities.
In 1995, the United States Congress passed the Jerusalem Embassy Act, which required, subject to conditions, that its embassy be moved from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem.[285] On 6 December 2017 U.S. President Donald Trump officially recognized Jerusalem as Israel's capital and announced his intention to move the American embassy to Jerusalem, reversing decades of United States policy on the issue.[286][287] The move was criticized by many nations.[288] A resolution condemning the US decision was supported by all the 14 other members of the UN Security Council, but was vetoed by the US on 18 December 2017.[289] A subsequent resolution condemning the US decision was passed in the United Nations General Assembly.[290][291][292][293] On 14 May 2018, the United States officially opened its embassy in Jerusalem, transforming its Tel Aviv location into a consulate. Due to the general lack of international recognition of Jerusalem as Israel's capital, some non-Israeli media outlets use Tel Aviv as a metonym for Israel.[294][295][296][297]
In April 2017, the Russian Foreign Ministry announced it viewed Western Jerusalem as Israel's capital in the context of UN-approved principles which include the status of East Jerusalem as the capital of the future Palestinian state.[298][299][300] On 15 December 2018, Australia officially recognized West Jerusalem as Israel's capital, but said their embassy in Tel Aviv would stay until a two-state resolution was settled.[301] The decision was reversed in October 2022.[302]
Government precinct and national institutions
The Kiryat HaLeom (national precinct) project is intended to house most government agencies and national cultural institutions. They are located in the Kiryat HaMemshala (government complex) in the Givat Ram neighbourhood. Some government buildings are located in Kiryat Menachem Begin. The city is home to the Knesset,[303] the Supreme Court,[304] the Bank of Israel, the National Headquarters of the Israel Police, the official residences of the President and Prime Minister, the Cabinet, and all ministries except for the Ministry of Defense (which is located in central Tel Aviv's HaKirya district) and the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (which is located in Rishon LeZion, in the wider Tel Aviv metropolitan area, near Beit Dagan).
Israeli settlements
![[icon]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png){kind=small} | This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2023) |
Since its capture in 1967, the Israeli government has built 12 Israeli settlements in East Jerusalem, with a population amounting to 220,000 Israeli Jewish settlers as of 2019.[305] The international community consider Israeli settlements to be illegal under international law.[306]
Jerusalem as capital of Palestine
The Palestinian National Authority views East Jerusalem as occupied territory according to United Nations Security Council Resolution 242. The Palestinian Authority claims Jerusalem, including the Haram al-Sharif, as the capital of the State of Palestine,[270] The PLO claims that West Jerusalem is also subject to permanent status negotiations. However, it has stated that it would be willing to consider alternative solutions, such as making Jerusalem an open city.[307]
The PLO's position is that East Jerusalem, as defined by the pre-1967 municipal boundaries, shall be the capital of Palestine and West Jerusalem the capital of Israel, with each state enjoying full sovereignty over its respective part of the city and with its own municipality. A joint development council would be responsible for coordinated development.[308] Orient House in East Jerusalem served as the headquarters of the PLO in the 1980s and 1990s. It was closed by Israel in 2001, two days after the Sbarro restaurant suicide bombing.
Some states, such as Russia[309] and China,[310] recognize the Palestinian state with East Jerusalem as its capital. United Nations General Assembly Resolution 58/292 affirmed that the Palestinian people have the right to sovereignty over East Jerusalem.[311]
Palestinian offices and institutions
Few countries maintains diplomatic missions in Jerusalem, acceridated to Palestine.[312] Representing countries include Greece, Turkey, Spain, Belgium, the United Kingdom, France, Holy See, Italy and Sweden.[313] Before the 1967 war, Sheikh Jarrah was "Diplomatic Quarter" for East Jerusalem.[312] While government offices are located outside the Israeli municipal limits includes the Palestinian Security Services, Force 17, the Preventative Security Service and the Ministry of Interior.[314][315][316] Furthermore, there is a Palestinian Authority regional office and an electoral office located in the Dahiyat al Barid neighborhood.[317]
Municipal administration
The Jerusalem City Council is a body of 31 elected members headed by the mayor, who serves a five-year term and appoints eight deputies. The former mayor of Jerusalem, Uri Lupolianski, was elected in 2003.[318] In the November 2008 city elections, Nir Barkat was elected. In November 2018, Moshe Lion was elected mayor.[319]
Apart from the mayor and his deputies, City Council members receive no salaries and work on a voluntary basis. The longest-serving Jerusalem mayor was Teddy Kollek, who spent 28 years—six consecutive terms—in office. Most of the meetings of the Jerusalem City Council are private, but each month, it holds a session that is open to the public.[318] Within the city council, religious political parties form an especially powerful faction, accounting for the majority of its seats.[320]
The headquarters of the Jerusalem Municipality and the mayor's office are at Safra Square (Kikar Safra) on Jaffa Road. The municipal complex, comprising two modern buildings and ten renovated historic buildings surrounding a large plaza, opened in 1993 when it moved from the old town hall building built by the Mandate authorities.[321] The city falls under the Jerusalem District, with Jerusalem as the district's capital. 37% of the population is Palestinian, but in 2014 not more than 10% of tax revenues were allocated for them. In East Jerusalem, 52% of the land was excluded from development, 35% designated for Jewish settlements, and 13% for Palestinian use, almost all of which was already built upon.[241]
In Oslo I Accord, certain parts of few neighborhoods were allotted to the Palestinian Authority. Parts of Sur Baher, Wadi al-Hummus, Umm Leisun and Umm Tuba, altogether came under Area A, which is completely controlled by the Palestinian Authority.[322] Al-Ram and Dahiyat al-Barid are mostly in Area B, where both Palestine and Israel has control.[323] Other parts of Beit Hanina, Kafr Aqab and Arab al-Jahalin also falls under Area B.[324][325][326]
Geography
Jerusalem is situated on the southern spur of a plateau in the Judaean Mountains, which include the Mount of Olives (East) and Mount Scopus (North East). The elevation of the Old City is approximately 760 m (2,490 ft).[327] The whole of Jerusalem is surrounded by valleys and dry riverbeds (wadis). The Kidron, Hinnom, and Tyropoeon Valleys intersect in an area just south of the Old City of Jerusalem.[328] The Kidron Valley runs to the east of the Old City and separates the Mount of Olives from the city proper. Along the southern side of old Jerusalem is the Valley of Hinnom, a steep ravine associated in biblical eschatology with the concept of Gehenna or Hell.[329]
The Tyropoeon Valley commenced in the northwest near the Damascus Gate, ran south-southeasterly through the centre of the Old City down to the Pool of Siloam, and divided the lower part into two hills, the Temple Mount to the east, and the rest of the city to the west, the lower and the upper cities described by Josephus. Today, this valley is hidden by debris that has accumulated over the centuries.[328] In biblical times, Jerusalem was surrounded by forests of almond, olive and pine trees. Over centuries of warfare and neglect, these forests were destroyed. Farmers in the Jerusalem region built stone terraces along the slopes to hold back the soil, a feature still very much in evidence in the Jerusalem landscape.[citation needed]
Water supply has always been a major problem in Jerusalem, as attested to by the intricate network of ancient aqueducts, tunnels, pools and cisterns found in the city.[330]
Jerusalem is 60 km (37 mi)[331] east of Tel Aviv and the Mediterranean Sea. On the opposite side of the city, approximately 35 km (22 mi)[332] away, is the Dead Sea, the lowest body of water on Earth. Neighbouring cities and towns include Bethlehem and Beit Jala to the south, Abu Dis and Ma'ale Adumim to the east, Mevaseret Zion to the west, and Ramallah and Giv'at Ze'ev to the north.[333][334][335]
Mount Herzl, at the western side of the city near the Jerusalem Forest, serves as the national cemetery of Israel.
-
Astronauts' view of Jerusalem -
Sunset aerial photograph of the Mount of Olives
Climate
The city is characterized by a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa), with hot, dry summers, and mild, wet winters. Snow flurries usually occur once or twice a winter, although the city experiences heavy snowfall every three to four years, on average, with short-lived accumulation.
January is the coldest month of the year, with an average temperature of 9.1 °C (48.4 °F); July and August are the hottest months, with an average temperature of 24.2 °C (75.6 °F), and the summer months are usually rainless. The average annual precipitation is around 537 mm (21 in), with rain occurring almost entirely between October and May.[336] Snowfall is rare, and large snowfalls are even more rare.[337][338] Jerusalem received over 30 cm (12 in) of snow on 13 December 2013, which nearly paralyzed the city.[337][338] A day in Jerusalem has on average, 9.3 sunshine hours. With summers averaging similar temperatures as the coastline, the maritime influence from the Mediterranean Sea is strong, in particular given that Jerusalem is located on a similar latitude as scorching hot deserts not far to its east.
The highest recorded temperature in Jerusalem was 44.4 °C (111.9 °F) on 28 and 30 August 1881, and the lowest temperature recorded was −6.7 °C (19.9 °F) on 25 January 1907.
Most of the air pollution in Jerusalem comes from vehicular traffic.[339] Many main streets in Jerusalem were not built to accommodate such a large volume of traffic, leading to traffic congestion and more carbon monoxide released into the air. Industrial pollution inside the city is sparse, but emissions from factories on the Israeli Mediterranean coast can travel eastward and settle over the city.[339][340]
| Climate data for Jerusalem (1991–2020 normals) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 24.4 (75.9) |
27.5 (81.5) |
32.7 (90.9) |
35.6 (96.1) |
38.6 (101.5) |
38.4 (101.1) |
40.6 (105.1) |
44.4 (111.9) |
42.7 (108.9) |
36.5 (97.7) |
30.5 (86.9) |
28.5 (83.3) |
44.4 (111.9) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 12.7 (54.9) |
14.0 (57.2) |
17.4 (63.3) |
22.0 (71.6) |
26.2 (79.2) |
28.6 (83.5) |
30.0 (86.0) |
30.3 (86.5) |
28.9 (84.0) |
25.9 (78.6) |
19.9 (67.8) |
14.9 (58.8) |
22.6 (72.6) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 9.8 (49.6) |
10.7 (51.3) |
13.4 (56.1) |
17.3 (63.1) |
21.2 (70.2) |
23.5 (74.3) |
25.0 (77.0) |
25.3 (77.5) |
24.0 (75.2) |
21.6 (70.9) |
16.4 (61.5) |
11.9 (53.4) |
18.3 (65.0) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 6.7 (44.1) |
7.3 (45.1) |
9.5 (49.1) |
12.5 (54.5) |
16.2 (61.2) |
18.3 (64.9) |
20.0 (68.0) |
20.2 (68.4) |
19.1 (66.4) |
17.3 (63.1) |
12.9 (55.2) |
8.8 (47.8) |
14.1 (57.3) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −6.7 (19.9) |
−2.5 (27.5) |
−0.3 (31.5) |
0.8 (33.4) |
7.6 (45.7) |
11.0 (51.8) |
14.6 (58.3) |
15.5 (59.9) |
13.2 (55.8) |
9.8 (49.6) |
1.8 (35.2) |
−0.4 (31.3) |
−6.7 (19.9) |
| Average rainfall mm (inches) | 136.8 (5.39) |
117.9 (4.64) |
67.2 (2.65) |
21.8 (0.86) |
7.1 (0.28) |
0.3 (0.01) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.7 (0.03) |
10.3 (0.41) |
51.1 (2.01) |
112.3 (4.42) |
525.5 (20.7) |
| Average rainy days (≥ 1 mm) | 9.2 | 8.5 | 6.2 | 2.4 | 0.8 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.2 | 1.9 | 4.7 | 7.7 | 41.6 |
| Average relative humidity (%) | 61 | 59 | 52 | 39 | 35 | 37 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 42 | 48 | 56 | 46 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 192.9 | 243.6 | 226.3 | 266.6 | 331.7 | 381.0 | 384.4 | 365.8 | 309.0 | 275.9 | 228.0 | 192.2 | 3,397.4 |
| Source 1: Israel Meteorological Service (records until 1990)[341][342] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2: NOAA (normal values & records, 1991–2020)[343] (sun, 1961–1990)[344] | |||||||||||||
Demographics
Demographic history
Jerusalem's population size and composition has shifted many times over its 5,000-year history. Since the 19th century, the Old City of Jerusalem has been divided into Jewish, Muslim, Christian, and Armenian quarters. Matthew Teller writes that this convention may have originated in the 1841 British Royal Engineers map of Jerusalem,[13] or at least Reverend George Williams' subsequent labelling of it.[345]
Most population data before 1905 is based on estimates, often from foreign travellers or organisations, since previous census data usually covered wider areas such as the Jerusalem District.[346] These estimates suggest that since the end of the Crusades, Muslims formed the largest group in Jerusalem until the mid-nineteenth century.
Between 1838 and 1876, a number of estimates exist which conflict as to whether Jews or Muslims were the largest group during this period, and between 1882 and 1922 estimates conflict as to exactly when Jews became an absolute majority of the population.
Current demographics
| West or East (1967 borders) |
Total | Jews and others |
Jews and others % |
Approx. # of Ultra- Orthodox |
Ultra- Orthodox as % of "Jews and Others" |
Arabs/ Pale- stinians |
Pale- stinian % |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| East Jerusalem | 611,370 | 240,831 | 39.4% | 111,121 | 46.1% | 370,532 | 60.6% |
| West Jerusalem | 354,840 | 349,734 | 98.6% | 166,688 | 47.7% | 5,088 | 1.4% |
| Total Jerusalem | 966,210 | 590,565 | 61% | 277,809 | 29% | 375,620 | 39% |
| Some sub-quarters straddle the Green Line and in those cases the sub-quarter is assigned to the sector (East or West) into which most of the area falls. Source: Statistical Yearbook of Jerusalem, 2021.[347] Totals do not sum exactly due to the presentation of some ethnoreligious groups as percentages of totals. | |||||||
In December 2007, Jerusalem had a population of 747,600—63.7% were Jewish, 33.1% Muslim, and 2% Christian.[348]
According to a study published in 2000, the percentage of Jews in the city's population had been decreasing; this was attributed to a higher Muslim birth rate, and Jewish residents leaving. The study also found that about nine percent of the Old City's 32,488 people were Jews.[349] Of the Jewish population, 200,000 live in East Jerusalem settlements which are considered illegal under international law.[350]
In 2005, 2,850 new immigrants settled in Jerusalem, mostly from the United States, France and the former Soviet Union. In terms of the local population, the number of outgoing residents exceeds the number of incoming residents. In 2005, 16,000 left Jerusalem and only 10,000 moved in.[351] Nevertheless, the population of Jerusalem continues to rise due to the high birth rate, especially in the Haredi Jewish and Arab communities. Consequently, the total fertility rate in Jerusalem (4.02) is higher than in Tel Aviv (1.98) and well above the national average of 2.90. The average size of Jerusalem's 180,000 households is 3.8 people.[351]
In 2005, the total population grew by 13,000 (1.8%)—similar to the Israeli national average, but the religious and ethnic composition is shifting. While 31% of the Jewish population is made up of children below the age fifteen, the figure for the Arab population is 42%.[351]
In 1967, Jews accounted for 74 percent of the population, while the figure for 2006 is down nine percent.[352] Possible factors are the high cost of housing, fewer job opportunities and the increasingly religious character of the city, although proportionally, young Haredim are leaving in higher numbers.[citation needed] The percentage of secular Jews, or those who 'wear their faith lightly' is dropping, with some 20,000 leaving the city over the past seven years (2012). They now number 31% of the population, the same percentage as the rising Haredi population.
In 2010, 61% of all Jewish children in Jerusalem studied in Haredi (Ultra-Orthodox) schools. This correlates with the high number of children in Haredi families.[353]
While some secular Jews leave Jerusalem for its relative lack of development and religious and political tensions, Jerusalem-born Palestinians cannot leave Jerusalem, or they lose their right to live in the city. Palestinians with a "Jerusalem resident status" are entitled to the subsidized healthcare and social security benefits Israel provides to its citizens, and have the right to vote in municipal elections, but not to be voted in municipal elections, or to vote in national elections. Arabs in Jerusalem can send their children to Israeli-run schools, although not every neighbourhood has one, and universities. Israeli doctors and highly regarded hospitals such as Hadassah Medical Centre are available to residents.[354]
Demographics and the Jewish-Arab population divide play a major role in the dispute over Jerusalem. In 1998, the Jerusalem Development Authority expanded city limits to the west to include more areas heavily populated with Jews.[16]
Within the past few years, there has been a steady increase in the Jewish birthrate and a steady decrease in the Arab birthrate. In May 2012, it was reported that the Jewish birthrate had overtaken the Arab birthrate. The city's birthrate stands about 4.2 children per Jewish family and 3.9 children per Arab family.[355][356] In addition, increasing numbers of Jewish immigrants chose to settle in Jerusalem. In the last few years, thousands of Palestinians have moved to previously fully Jewish neighbourhoods of East Jerusalem, built after the 1967 Six-Day War. In 2007, 1,300 Palestinians lived in the previously exclusively Jewish neighbourhood of Pisgat Ze'ev and constituted three percent of the population in Neve Ya'akov. In the French Hill neighbourhood, Palestinians today constitute one-sixth of the overall population.[357]
At the end of 2008, the population of East Jerusalem was 456,300, comprising 60% of Jerusalem's residents. Of these, 195,500 (43%) were Jews, (comprising 40% of the Jewish population of Jerusalem as a whole), and 260,800 (57%) were Muslim (comprising 98% of the Muslim population of Jerusalem).[358] In 2008, the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics reported the number of Palestinians living in East Jerusalem was 208,000 according to a recently completed census.[359]
Jerusalem's Jewish population is overwhelmingly religious. Only 18% of Jewish residents are secular. In addition, Haredi Jews comprise 35% of the city's adult Jewish population. In a phenomenon seen rarely around the world, the percentage of Jewish women who work, 81%, exceeds the percentage of Jewish men who work, 70%.[360]
Jerusalem had a population of 804,400 in 2011, of which Jews comprised 499,400 (62.1%), Muslims 281,100 (34.9%), Christians 14,700 (1.8%), and 9,000 (1.1%) were not classified by religion.[17]
Jerusalem had a population of 882,700 in 2016, of which Jews comprised 536,600 (60.8%), Muslims 319,800 (36.2%), Christians 15,800 (1.8%), and 10,300 unclassified (1.2%).[17]
Jerusalem had a population of 951,100 in 2020, of which Jews comprised 570,100 (59.9%), Muslims 353.800 (37.2%), Christians 16.300 (1.7%), and 10,800 unclassified (1.1%).[17]
According to Peace Now, approvals for building in Israeli settlements in East Jerusalem have expanded by 60% under Donald Trump's term as U.S. president.[361] Since 1991, Palestinians, who make up the majority of the residents in East Jerusalem, have only received 30% of the building permits.[362]
Urban planning issues
Critics of efforts to promote a Jewish majority in Jerusalem say that government planning policies are motivated by demographic considerations and seek to limit Arab construction while promoting Jewish construction.[363] According to a World Bank report, the number of recorded building violations between 1996 and 2000 was four and half times higher in Jewish neighbourhoods but four times fewer demolition orders were issued in West Jerusalem than in East Jerusalem; Arabs in Jerusalem were less likely to receive construction permits than Jews, and "the authorities are much more likely to take action against Palestinian violators" than Jewish violators of the permit process.[364] In recent years, private Jewish foundations have received permission from the government to develop projects on disputed lands, such as the City of David archaeological site in the 60% Arab neighbourhood of Silwan (adjacent to the Old City),[365] and the Museum of Tolerance on Mamilla Cemetery (adjacent to Zion Square).[364][366]
Religious significance
Jerusalem has been sacred to Judaism for roughly 3000 years, to Christianity for around 2000 years, and to Islam for approximately 1400 years. The 2000 Statistical Yearbook of Jerusalem lists 1204 synagogues, 158 churches, and 73 mosques within the city.[367] Despite efforts to maintain peaceful religious coexistence, some sites, such as the Temple Mount, have been a continuous source of friction and controversy. The Temple Mount is the holiest spot in Judaism and the third holiest site in Islam. Jews venerate it as the site of the two former Temples and Muslims believe that Muhammad was transported from the Great Mosque of Mecca to this location during the Night Journey.
Judaism
Jerusalem has been the holiest city in Judaism and the ancestral and spiritual homeland of the Jewish people since King David proclaimed it his capital in the 10th century BCE.[note 5][21] Without counting its other names, Jerusalem appears in the Hebrew Bible 669 times.[368] The first section, the Torah (Pentateuch), only mentions Moriah, but in later parts of the Bible, the city is mentioned explicitly.[369] The Temple Mount, which was the site of Solomon's Temple and the Second Temple, is the holiest site in Judaism and the place Jews turn towards during prayer.[370][371] The Western Wall, a remnant of the wall surrounding the Second Temple, is the holiest place where Jews are permitted to pray.[372] Synagogues around the world are traditionally built with the Holy Ark facing Jerusalem,[373] and Arks within Jerusalem face the Holy of Holies.[374] As prescribed in the Mishna and codified in the Shulchan Aruch, daily prayers are recited while facing towards Jerusalem and the Temple Mount. Many Jews have "Mizrach" plaques hung on a wall of their homes to indicate the direction of prayer.[374][375] The Western Wall is a remnant of the Second Temple and the holiest place where Jews are permitted to pray.
Christianity
Jerusalem is generally considered the cradle of Christianity.[376] Christianity reveres Jerusalem for its Old Testament history, and also for its significance in the life of Jesus. According to the New Testament, Jesus was brought to Jerusalem soon after his birth[377] and later in his life cleansed the Second Temple.[378] The Cenacle, believed to be the site of Jesus' Last Supper, is located on Mount Zion in the same building that houses the Tomb of King David.[379][380] Another prominent Christian site in Jerusalem is Golgotha, the site of the crucifixion. The Gospel of John describes it as being located outside Jerusalem,[381] but recent archaeological evidence suggests Golgotha is a short distance from the Old City walls, within the present-day confines of the city.[382] The land occupied by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is considered one of the top candidates for Golgotha and thus has been a Christian pilgrimage site for the past 2000 years.[382][383][384] The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is generally considered the most important church in Christendom.[385] It contains the two holiest sites in Christianity: the site where Jesus was crucified, and Jesus's empty tomb, where he is believed by Christians to have been buried and resurrected.
Islam
Jerusalem is the third-holiest city in Sunni Islam.[28] Islamic tradition holds that for approximately a year, before it was permanently switched to the Kaaba in Mecca, the qibla (direction of prayer) for Muslims was Jerusalem.[386][387] The city's lasting place in Islam, however, is primarily due to Muhammad's Night Journey (c. 620 CE). Muslims believe that Muhammad was miraculously transported one night from the Great Mosque of Mecca to the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, whereupon he ascended to Heaven to meet previous prophets of Islam.[388][389][390] The first verse in the Qur'an's Surat al-Isra notes the destination of Muhammad's journey as al-masjid al-aqṣā ("the farthest place of prayer").[391][392] In the earliest days of Islam, this was understood as a reference to a site in the heavens,[393] however, Post-Rashidun Islamic scholars understood it as relating to Jerusalem, and particularly to the site of the former Jewish Temple.[394] The hadith, a collection of the sayings of Muhammad, mentions that the location of the Al-Aqsa Mosque is in Jerusalem.[395] The Al-Aqsa Mosque, originally named after the wider compound it sits within,[396] was built on the Temple Mount under the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid several decades after Muhammad's death to commemorate the place from which Muslims believe he had ascended to Heaven.[397]
-
A view of the Temple Mount -
The Western Wall, also known as the Wailing Wall and the Kotel, i -
-
The Garden Tomb – a new holy site established by British Protestants in the 19th century -
Dome of the Rock, where Muhammad is believed by Muslims to have ascended to heaven -
Economy
Historically, Jerusalem's economy was supported almost exclusively by religious pilgrims, as it was far from the major ports of Jaffa and Gaza.[398] Jerusalem's religious and cultural landmarks today remain the top draw for foreign visitors, with the majority of tourists visiting the Western Wall and the Old City.[351] In 2010, Jerusalem was named the top leisure travel city in Africa and the Middle East by Travel + Leisure magazine.[399] in 2013, 75% of the 3.5 million tourists to Israel visited Jerusalem.[400]
Since the establishment of the State of Israel, the national government has remained a major player in Jerusalem's economy. The government, centred in Jerusalem, generates a large number of jobs, and offers subsidies and incentives for new business initiatives and start-ups.[398] Although Tel Aviv remains Israel's financial centre, a growing number of high tech companies are moving to Jerusalem, providing 12,000 jobs in 2006.[401] Northern Jerusalem's Har Hotzvim industrial park and the Jerusalem Technology Park in south Jerusalem are home to large Research and Development centres of international tech companies, among them Intel, Cisco Systems, Teva Pharmaceutical Industries, IBM, Mobileye, Johnson & Johnson, Medtronic and more.[402] In April 2015, Time Magazine picked Jerusalem as one of the five emerging tech hubs in the world, proclaiming that "The city has become a flourishing centre for biomed, cleantech, Internet/mobile startups, accelerators, investors and supporting service providers."[403]
Higher than average percentages are employed in education (17.9% vs. 12.7%); health and welfare (12.6% vs. 10.7%); community and social services (6.4% vs. 4.7%); hotels and restaurants (6.1% vs. 4.7%); and public administration (8.2% vs. 4.7%).[404] During the British Mandate, a law was passed requiring all buildings to be constructed of Jerusalem stone in order to preserve the unique historic and aesthetic character of the city.[210] Complementing this building code, which is still in force, is the discouragement of heavy industry in Jerusalem; only about 2.2% of Jerusalem's land is zoned for "industry and infrastructure". By comparison, the percentage of land in Tel Aviv zoned for industry and infrastructure is twice as high, and in Haifa, seven times as high.[351] Only 8.5% of the Jerusalem District work force is employed in the manufacturing sector, which is half the national average (15.8%).
Although many statistics indicate economic growth in the city, since 1967, East Jerusalem has lagged behind the development of West Jerusalem.[398] Nevertheless, the percentage of households with employed persons is higher for Arab households (76.1%) than for Jewish households (66.8%). The unemployment rate in Jerusalem (8.3%) is slightly better than the national average (9.0%), although the civilian labour force accounted for less than half of all persons fifteen years or older—lower in comparison to that of Tel Aviv (58.0%) and Haifa (52.4%).[351] Poverty remains a problem in the city as 37% of the families in Jerusalem lived in 2011 below the poverty line. According to a report by the Association for Civil Rights in Israel (ACRI), 78% of Arabs in Jerusalem lived in poverty in 2012, up from 64% in 2006. While the ACRI attributes the increase to the lack of employment opportunities, infrastructure and a worsening educational system, Ir Amim blames the legal status of Palestinians in Jerusalem.[405]
The increasing number of educated Palestinians in Jerusalem has brought about positive economic changes.[406] Through reforms and initiatives in sectors like technology, tourism, trade, and infrastructure, they have helped drive economic growth, create jobs, and improve living conditions in the city.[407][408] Various joint summits between Israeli and Palestinian entrepreneurs have been held in the city.[409] Palestine Investment Fund have proposed various projects in Jerusalem.[410][411] Palestinian industrialist Bashar Masri sought to make heavy investments in the city.[412] PA controlled industrial areas are located outskirts of Jerusalem, primarily in Bir Nabala, Abu Dis and Eizariya, engaging in manufacture of tires, food products and concretes.[413]
High-tech industry is emerged among Palestinian society of Jerusalem.[414][415] In 2023, Israel opened a technology park in East Jerusalem, known as EasTech. Local Palestinian engineers are employed in the complex by multinational companies, some of which includes AT&T, Natural Intelligence, Nvidia, Unity and Synamedia. Station J, an innovation hub is located in Sheikh Jarrah, which is yet another tech hub for Palestinians in the city. Hani Alami, a Jerusalem-based Palestinian entrepreneur has set up a start-+up accelerator.[416] As a part of Israeli–Palestinian economic peace efforts, interaction between Israeli and Palestinian business community, also contributes in growth of Palestinian IT sector in the city.[417][418]
Urban structure
High-rise construction
Jerusalem has traditionally had a low-rise skyline. About 18 tall buildings were built at different times in the downtown area when there was no clear policy over the matter. One of them, Holyland Tower 1, Jerusalem's tallest building, is a skyscraper by international standards, rising 32 stories. Holyland Tower 2, which has been approved for construction, will reach the same height.[419][420]
A new master plan for the city will see many high-rise buildings, including skyscrapers, built in certain, designated areas of downtown Jerusalem. Under the plan, towers will line Jaffa Road and King George Street. One of the proposed towers along King George Street, the Migdal Merkaz HaYekum, is planned as a 65-story building, which would make it one of the tallest buildings in Israel. At the entrance to the city, near the Jerusalem Chords Bridge and the Central Bus Station, twelve towers rising between 24 and 33 stories will be built, as part of a complex that will also include an open square and an underground train station serving a new express line between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv, and will be connected by bridges and tunnels. Eleven of the skyscrapers will be either office or apartment buildings, and one will be a 2,000-room hotel. The complex is expected to attract many businesses from Tel Aviv, and become the city's main business hub. In addition, a complex for the city's courts and the prosecutor's office will be built, as well as new buildings for Central Zionist Archives and Israel State Archives.[421][422][423] The skyscrapers built throughout the city are expected to contain public space, shops, restaurants, and entertainment venues, and it has been speculated that this may lead to a revitalization of downtown Jerusalem.[424][425] In August 2015, the city council approved construction of a 344-foot pyramid-shaped skyscraper designed by Daniel Libeskind and Yigal Levi, in place of a rejected previous design by Libeskind; it is set to break ground by 2019.[426]
New projects in Jerusalem
In 2021, Bashar Masri announced and launched "Lana", a massive mix-used project in East Jerusalem, which is located in the neighborhood of Beit Hanina. The project is in a partnership between Massar International and the Orthodox Church of Jerusalem. It features 400 residential apartments along with a vibrant commercial center that hosts well-known global brands, cinemas, restaurants, cafes, and offices. The project also includes modern educational facilities, such as a school and a kindergarten, catering to the needs of residents. In addition to its focus on residential and commercial aspects, the Lana project emphasizes the improvement of infrastructure within the project and its surroundings. This involves the construction of three to four floors of underground parking to accommodate the residents' vehicles conveniently. Furthermore, there is a comprehensive plan to expand the road network surrounding the project, ensuring smooth transportation and accessibility for both residents and visitors. It is situated just 15 minutes away from the historic Old City of Jerusalem.[427]
Transportation
Public transport
Jerusalem is served by highly developed communication infrastructures, making it a leading logistics hub for Israel.
The Jerusalem Central Bus Station, located on Jaffa Road, is the busiest bus station in Israel. It is served by Egged Bus Cooperative, which is the second-largest bus company in the world,[428] The Dan serves the Bnei Brak-Jerusalem route along with Egged, and Superbus serves the routes between Jerusalem, Modi'in Illit, and Modi'in-Maccabim-Re'ut. The companies operate from Jerusalem Central Bus Station. Arab neighbourhoods in East Jerusalem and routes between Jerusalem and locations in the West Bank are served by the East Jerusalem Central Bus Station, a transportation hub located near the Old City's Damascus Gate.
Railway
The Jerusalem Light Rail initiated service in August 2011. According to plans, the first rail line will be capable of transporting an estimated 200,000 people daily, and has 23 stops. The route is from Pisgat Ze'ev in the north via the Old City and city centre to Mt. Herzl in the south.
A high-speed rail line connecting Tel Aviv to Jerusalem became partially operational in 2018 and was completed in 2019.[429] Its terminus is at the new underground station (80 m or 262 ft deep) serving the International Convention Centre and the Central Bus Station,[430] and is planned to be extended eventually to Malha station. Israel Railways operated train services to Malha train station from Tel Aviv via Beit Shemesh, but this service was discontinued in 2020.[431][432][433]
Begin Expressway is one of Jerusalem's major north–south thoroughfares; it runs on the western side of the city, merging in the north with Route 443, which continues toward Tel Aviv. Route 60 runs through the centre of the city near the Green Line between East and West Jerusalem. Construction is progressing on parts of a 35 km (22 mi) ring road around the city, fostering faster connection between the suburbs.[434][435] The eastern half of the project was conceptualized decades ago, but reaction to the proposed highway is still mixed.[434]
Airport
In the past, Jerusalem was also served by the local Jerusalem International Airport, locally known as Atarot Airport. It was the first airport built in the British Mandate of Palestine. Palestinians considered the Atarot Airport as a "symbol of Palestinian sovereignty".[436] The airport falls beyond Green Line. After 1948 war, it came under control of Jordan. Following the Six Day War of 1967, the airport came under control of Israel.[437] With increase of violence in the second intifada, Atarot Airport ceased operation in 2000. Today Jerusalem is served by Ben Gurion Airport, some 50 km (30 mi) northwest of the Jerusalem, on the route to Tel Aviv. The Tel Aviv–Jerusalem railway runs non-stop from Jerusalem–Yitzhak Navon railway station to the airport and began operation in 2018.[438]
Australian businessman Kevin Bermeister proposed a masterplan of Jerusalem, which also includes the development of an airport for Jerusalem in the Jordan Valley, near Jericho.[439] The airport is sought to be a joint Israeli-Palestinian airport. Palestinian Prime Minister Mohammad Shtayyeh have also appealed to Israeli authorities to redevelop the airport.[440] In 2021, the Israeli government planned to redevelop Atarot Airport as a joint Israeli–Palestinian airport.[441] The new Atarot Airport will include two separate Israeli and Palestinian terminals.
Education
Universities
Jerusalem is home to several prestigious universities offering courses in Hebrew, Arabic and English.
Founded in 1925, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem has been ranked among the top 100 schools in the world.[442] The Board of Governors has included such prominent Jewish intellectuals as Albert Einstein and Sigmund Freud.[211] The university has produced several Nobel laureates; recent winners associated with Hebrew University include Avram Hershko,[443] David Gross,[444] and Daniel Kahneman.[445] One of the university's major assets is the Jewish National and University Library, which houses over five million books.[446] The library opened in 1892, over three decades before the university was established, and is one of the world's largest repositories of books on Jewish subjects. Today it is both the central library of the university and the national library of Israel.[447] The Hebrew University operates three campuses in Jerusalem, on Mount Scopus, on Giv'at Ram and a medical campus at the Hadassah Ein Kerem hospital. The Academy of the Hebrew Language are located in the Hebrew university in Givat Ram and the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities located near the Presidents House.
The Jerusalem College of Technology, founded in 1969, combines training in engineering and other high-tech industries with a Jewish studies programme.[448] It is one of many schools in Jerusalem, from elementary school and up, that combine secular and religious studies. Numerous religious educational institutions and Yeshivot, including some of the most prestigious yeshivas, among them the Brisk, Chevron, Midrash Shmuel and Mir, are based in the city, with the Mir Yeshiva claiming to be the largest.[449] There were nearly 8,000 twelfth-grade students in Hebrew-language schools during the 2003–2004 school year.[351] However, due to the large portion of students in Haredi Jewish frameworks, only fifty-five percent of twelfth graders took matriculation exams (Bagrut) and only thirty-seven percent were eligible to graduate. Unlike public schools, many Haredi schools do not prepare students to take standardized tests.[351] To attract more university students to Jerusalem, the city has begun to offer a special package of financial incentives and housing subsidies to students who rent apartments in downtown Jerusalem.[450]
Al-Quds University was established in 1984[451] to serve as a flagship university for the Arab and Palestinian peoples.[citation needed] It describes itself as the "only Arab university in Jerusalem".[452] Bard College of Annandale-on-Hudson, New York and Al-Quds University agreed to open a joint college in a building originally built to house the Palestinian Legislative Council and Yasser Arafat's office. The college gives Master of Arts in Teaching degrees.[453] Al-Quds University resides southeast of the city proper on a 190,000 m2 (47-acre) Abu Dis campus.[451] Other campuses of AQU are located within city limits of Jerusalem. A campus of university in Sheikh Jarrah, which is one of the oldest faculties, is known as Hind Al Husseini College for Arts.[454] It was named after Hind al-Husseini, a Palestinian activists known for rescuing orphaned survivors of Deir Yassin massacre and giving them shelter in a palace of her grandfather, which was converted into an orphanage and later a college, which is a part today's Al Quds University.[455] A joint campus of AQU and Bard College is located in Beit Hanina. Bayt Mal Al Qods Acharif Agency, a Moroccan organization is constructing a new campus in same neighborhood.[456]
Other institutions of higher learning in Jerusalem are the Jerusalem Academy of Music and Dance[457] and Bezalel Academy of Art and Design,[458][459] whose buildings are located on the campuses of the Hebrew University.
Arab schools
Israel's public schools for Arabs in Jerusalem and other parts of the country have been criticized for offering a lower quality education than those catering to Israeli Jewish students.[460] While many schools in the heavily Arab East Jerusalem are filled to capacity and there have been complaints of overcrowding, the Jerusalem Municipality is building over a dozen new schools in the city's Arab neighbourhoods.[461] Schools in Ras el-Amud and Umm Lison opened in 2008.[462] In March 2007, the Israeli government approved a five-year plan to build 8,000 new classrooms in the city, 40 percent in the Arab sector and 28 percent in the Haredi sector. A budget of 4.6 billion shekels was allocated for this project.[463] In 2008, Jewish British philanthropists donated $3 million for the construction of schools for Arabs in East Jerusalem.[462] Arab high school students take the Bagrut matriculation exams, so that much of their curriculum parallels that of other Israeli high schools and includes certain Jewish subjects.[460]
Culture
Although Jerusalem is known primarily for its religious significance, the city is also home to many artistic and cultural venues. The Israel Museum attracts nearly one million visitors a year, approximately one-third of them tourists.[464] The 8 ha (20-acre) museum complex comprises several buildings featuring special exhibits and extensive collections of Judaica, archaeological findings, and Israeli and European art. The Dead Sea scrolls, discovered in the mid-20th century in the Qumran Caves near the Dead Sea, are housed in the Museum's Shrine of the Book.[465] The Youth Wing, which mounts changing exhibits and runs an extensive art education programme, is visited by 100,000 children a year. The museum has a large outdoor sculpture garden and includes the Holyland Model of Jerusalem, a scale-model of the city during the late Second Temple period.[464] The Ticho House in downtown Jerusalem houses the paintings of Anna Ticho and the Judaica collections of her husband, an ophthalmologist who opened Jerusalem's first eye clinic in this building in 1912.[466]
Next to the Israel Museum is the Bible Lands Museum, near The National Campus for the Archaeology of Israel, which includes the Israel Antiquities Authority offices. A World Bible Centre is planned to be built adjacent to Mount Zion at a site called the "Bible Hill". A planned World Kabbalah Centre is to be located on the nearby promenade, overlooking the Old City. The Rockefeller Museum, located in East Jerusalem, was the first archaeological museum in the Middle East. It was built in 1938 during the British Mandate.[467][468] In 2006, a 38 km (24 mi) Jerusalem Trail was opened, a hiking trail that goes to many cultural sites and national parks in and around Jerusalem. The Jerusalem Biblical Zoo has ranked consistently as Israel's top tourist attraction for Israelis.[469][470] The national cemetery of Israel is located at the city's western edge, near the Jerusalem Forest on Mount Herzl. The western extension of Mount Herzl is the Mount of Remembrance, where the main Holocaust museum of Israel is located. Yad Vashem, Israel's national memorial to the victims of the Holocaust, houses the world's largest library of Holocaust-related information.[471] It houses an estimated 100,000 books and articles. The complex contains a state-of-the-art museum that explores the genocide of the Jews through exhibits that focus on the personal stories of individuals and families killed in the Holocaust. An art gallery featuring the work of artists who perished is also present. Further, Yad Vashem commemorates the 1.5 million Jewish children murdered by the Nazis, and honours the Righteous among the Nations.[472]
The Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra, established in the 1940s,[473] has appeared around the world.[473] The International Convention Centre (Binyanei HaUma) near the entrance to city houses the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra. The Jerusalem Cinemateque, the Gerard Behar Centre (formerly Beit Ha'Am) in downtown Jerusalem, the Jerusalem Music Centre in Yemin Moshe,[474] and the Targ Music Centre in Ein Kerem also present the arts. The Israel Festival, featuring indoor and outdoor performances by local and international singers, concerts, plays, and street theatre has been held annually since 1961, and Jerusalem has been the major organizer of this event. The Jerusalem Theatre in the Talbiya neighbourhood hosts over 150 concerts a year, as well as theatre and dance companies and performing artists from overseas.[475] The Khan Theatre, located in a caravanserai opposite the old Jerusalem train station, is the city's only repertoire theatre.[476] The station itself has become a venue for cultural events in recent years as the site of Shav'ua Hasefer (an annual week-long book fair) and outdoor music performances.[477] The Jerusalem Film Festival is held annually, screening Israeli and international films.[478] In 1974 the Jerusalem Cinematheque was founded. In 1981 it was moved to a new building on Hebron Road near the Valley of Hinnom and the Old City.
Jerusalem was declared the Capital of Arab Culture in 2009.[479] Jerusalem is home to the Palestinian National Theatre, which engages in cultural preservation as well as innovation, working to rekindle Palestinian interest in the arts.[480] The Edward Said National Conservatory of Music sponsors the Palestine Youth Orchestra[481] which toured Arab states of the Persian Gulf and other Middle East countries in 2009.[482] The Islamic Museum on the Temple Mount, established in 1923, houses many Islamic artifacts, from tiny kohl flasks and rare manuscripts to giant marble columns.[483] Al-Hoash, established in 2004, is a gallery for the preservation of Palestinian art.[484] While Israel approves and financially supports some Arab cultural activities,[485] Arab Capital of Culture events were banned because they were sponsored by the Palestine National Authority.[479] In 2009, a four-day culture festival was held in the Beit 'Anan suburb of Jerusalem, attended by more than 15,000 people[486]
Palestinian cinema is based in the city.[487] Jerusalem has been location for "Jerusalem Arab Film Festival", for exhibiting Palestinian films.[488] The city is home to numerous artists, singers, actors, actresses and filmmakers.[489] Established in 1991, Riwaq have been working on various projects to restore cultural and historical sites across Palestine.[490] Difficulties to operate in the annexed areas of Palestinian Jerusalem, it have successfully worked across those neighborhoods, rural and suburban area and Jerusalem Mountains (Jibal al-Quds), where the Palestinian government has control.[491] So far, the organization have restored a number of sites across neighborhoods of Kafr 'Aqab, Al Jib, Jaba and Qalandia.[492] Those restored structures serves as local community centers, cultural sites and headquarters of several NGOs and cultural groups.[492] Yabous Cultural Center is the largest cultural center in the city, opened by Palestinian groups in 1997.[493] Edward Said National Conservatory of Music have a branch in Jerusalem.
Hadassah Medical Center and the Hebrew University have unveiled a "Tree of Peace" statue at the Al Quds University School of Dental Medicine.[494] The Museum on the Seam, which explores issues of coexistence through art, is situated on the road dividing eastern and western Jerusalem.[495] The Abraham Fund and the Jerusalem Intercultural Centre (JICC) promote joint Jewish-Palestinian cultural projects. The Jerusalem Centre for Middle Eastern Music and Dance[496] is open to Arabs and Jews and offers workshops on Jewish-Arab dialogue through the arts.[497] The Jewish-Arab Youth Orchestra performs both European classical and Middle Eastern music.[498] In 2008, the Tolerance Monument, an outdoor sculpture by Czesław Dźwigaj, was erected on a hill between Jewish Armon HaNetziv and Arab Jebl Mukaber as a symbol of Jerusalem's quest for peace.[499]
Media
Jerusalem is the state broadcasting centre of Israel. The Israel Broadcasting Authority's main office is located in Jerusalem, as well as the TV and radio studios for Israel Radio, Channel 2, Channel 10, and part of the radio studios of BBC News. The Jerusalem Post and The Times of Israel are also headquartered in Jerusalem. Local newspapers include Kol Ha'Ir and The Jerusalem Times. God TV, an international Christian television network is also based in the city. PYALARA, an organization based in Jerusalem, have transformed Jaba into a digital hub, which is first Middle East's first digital village and is also home to first Media Interactive Learning Center in the Middle East.[500]
Sports
The two most popular sports are football (soccer) and basketball.[501] Beitar Jerusalem Football Club is one of the most well known in Israel. Fans include political figures who often attend its games.[502] Jerusalem's other major football team, and one of Beitar's top rivals, is Hapoel Jerusalem F.C. Whereas Beitar has been Israel State Cup champion seven times,[503] Hapoel has won the Cup only once. Beitar has won the top league six times, while Hapoel has never succeeded. Beitar plays in the more prestigious Ligat HaAl, while Hapoel is in the second division Liga Leumit. Since its opening in 1992, Teddy Stadium has been Jerusalem's primary football stadium, with a capacity of 31,733[504]
The most popular Palestinian football club is Jabal Al Mukaber (since 1976) which plays in West Bank Premier League. The club hails from Mount Scopus at Jerusalem, part of the Asian Football Confederation, and plays at the Faisal Al-Husseini International Stadium at Al-Ram, across the West Bank Barrier.[505][506]
In basketball, Hapoel Jerusalem is one of the top teams in the top division. The club has won Israel's championship in 2015, the State Cup four times, and the ULEB Cup in 2004.[507]
The Jerusalem Marathon, established in 2011, is an international marathon race held annually in Jerusalem in the month of March. The full 42-kilometre race begins at the Knesset, passes through Mount Scopus and the Old City's Armenian Quarter, and concludes at Sacher Park. In 2012, the Jerusalem Marathon drew 15,000 runners, including 1,500 from fifty countries outside Israel.[508][509][510][511][512]
A popular non-competitive sports event is the Jerusalem March, held annually during the Sukkot festival.
Twin towns – sister cities
Jerusalem is twinned with:
Niterói, Brazil[513]- Rio de Janeiro, Brazil[514]
- Salvador, Brazil[515]
Cairo, Egypt[516]
Jakarta, Indonesia[517]
Tehran, Iran[518]
Ayabe, Kyoto Prefecture, Japan[519]
Nouakchott, Mauritania[520]
Fez, Morocco[521]- Oujda, Morocco[522]
Cusco, Peru[523]
Jersey City, New Jersey, United States[524]- New York City, New York, United States[525]
See also
- Greater Jerusalem
- List of people from Jerusalem
- List of places in Jerusalem
- List of songs about Jerusalem
Notes
- ^ The State of Palestine (according to the Basic Law of Palestine, Title One: Article 3) regards Jerusalem as its capital.[1] However, the documents of the PLO's Negotiations Affairs Department (NAD) often refer to East Jerusalem (rather than the whole of Jerusalem) as a future capital, and sometimes as the current capital. One of its 2010 documents, described as "for discussion purposes only", says that Palestine has a '"vision"' for a future in which "East Jerusalem ... shall be the capital of Palestine, and West Jerusalem shall be the capital of Israel",[2][3] and one of its 2013 documents refers to "Palestine's capital, East Jerusalem", and states that "Occupied East Jerusalem is the natural socio-economic and political center for the future Palestinian state", while also stating that "Jerusalem has always been and remains the political, administrative and spiritual heart of Palestine" and that "The Palestinian acceptance of the 1967 border, which includes East Jerusalem, is a painful compromise".[4]
- ^ In other languages: official Arabic in Israel: Arabic: أورشليم القدس, romanized: ʾŪršalīm al-Quds (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names); Ancient Greek: Ἱερουσαλήμ/Ἰεροσόλυμα, romanized: Hierousalḗm/Hierosóluma; Armenian: Երուսաղեմ, romanized: Erusałēm.
- ^ Jerusalem is the capital under Israeli law. The presidential residence, government offices, supreme court and parliament (Knesset) are there. The State of Palestine (according to the Basic Law of Palestine, Title One: Article 3) regards Jerusalem as its capital.[1] The UN and most countries do not recognize Jerusalem as Israel's capital, taking the position that the final status of Jerusalem is pending future negotiations between Israel and the Palestinian Authority. Most countries maintain their embassies in Tel Aviv and its suburbs or suburbs of Jerusalem, such as Mevaseret Zion (see CIA Factbook and "Map of Israel" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 June 2020. Retrieved 28 June 2017. (319 KB)) See Status of Jerusalem for more information.
- ^ Statistics regarding the demographics of Jerusalem refer to the unified and expanded Israeli municipality, which includes the pre-1967 Israeli and Jordanian municipalities as well as several additional Palestinian villages and neighborhoods to the northeast. Some of the Palestinian villages and neighborhoods have been relinquished to the West Bank de facto by way of the Israeli West Bank barrier,[16] but their legal statuses have not been reverted.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Much of the information regarding King David's conquest of Jerusalem comes from Biblical accounts, but some modern-day historians have begun to give them credit due to a 1993 excavation.[18]
- ^ West Jerusalem comprises approximately one third of the municipal area of Jerusalem, with East Jerusalem comprising approximately two-thirds. On the annexation of East Jerusalem, Israel also incorporated an area of the West Bank into the Jerusalem municipal area which represented more than ten times the area of East Jerusalem under Jordanian rule.[34][35][36]
References
- ^ Jump up to: a b 2003 Amended Basic Law Archived 11 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Basic Law of Palestine. Retrieved 9 December 2012.
- ^ "Jerusalem Non-Paper" (PDF). PLO-NAD. June 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 February 2012. Retrieved 25 July 2018.
- ^ "Statements and Speeches". nad-plo.org. p. 2. Archived from the original on 18 April 2016. Retrieved 25 November 2014.
This paper is for discussion purposes only. Nothing is agreed until everything is agreed. Palestinian vision for Jerusalem...Pursuant to our vision, East Jerusalem, as defined by its pre-1967 occupation municipal borders, shall be the capital of Palestine, and West Jerusalem shall be the capital of Israel, with each state enjoying full sovereignty over its respective part of the city.
- ^ "East Jerusalem today – Palestine's Capital: The 1967 border in Jerusalem and Israel's illegal policies on the ground" (PDF). PLO-Negotiations Affairs Department (NAD). August 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 25 November 2014.
- ^ A-Z Guide to the Qur'an: A Must-have Reference to Understanding the Contents of the Islamic Holy Book by Mokhtar Stork (1999): "JERUSALEM: Referred to in Arabic as Baitul Muqaddas (The Holy House) or Baitul Maqdis (The House of the Sanctuary)".
- ^ Pan-Islamism in India & Bengal by Mohammad Shah (2002), p. 63: "... protector of Mecca, Medina and Baitul Muqaddas, the sacred places of pilgrimage of the Muslim world"
- ^ Jump up to: a b Elihay, Yohanan (2011). Speaking Arabic: a course in conversational Eastern (Palestinian) Arabic. Rothberg International School ([2009 ed.], reprinted with corr. 2011 ed.). Jerusalem: Minerva. p. 36. ISBN 978-965-7397-30-5. OCLC 783142368.
- ^ Smith, William (6 December 2017). "Donald Trump confirms US will recognise Jerusalem as capital of Israel". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 13 May 2017.
- ^ "Do We Divide the Holiest Holy City?". Moment Magazine. Archived from the original on 3 June 2008. Retrieved 5 March 2008. According to Eric H. Cline's tally in Jerusalem Besieged.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Greenberg, Raphael; Mizrachi, Yonathan (10 September 2013). "From Shiloah to Silwan – A Visitor's Guide". Emek Shaveh. Archived from the original on 15 August 2022. Retrieved 25 July 2018.
- ^ Sergi, Omer (2023). The Two Houses of Israel: State Formation and the Origins of Pan-Israelite Identity. SBL Press. p. 197. ISBN 978-1-62837-345-5. Archived from the original on 24 October 2023. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ Ben-Arieh, Yehoshua (1984). Jerusalem in the 19th Century, The Old City. Yad Izhak Ben Zvi & St. Martin's Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-312-44187-6.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Teller, Matthew (2022). Nine Quarters of Jerusalem: A New Biography of the Old City. Profile Books. p. Chapter 1. ISBN 978-1-78283-904-0. Archived from the original on 9 June 2023. Retrieved 30 May 2023.
What wasn't corrected, though - and what, in retrospect, should have raised much more controversy than it did (it seems to have passed completely unremarked for the last 170-odd years) – was [Aldrich and Symonds's] map's labelling. Because here, newly arcing across the familiar quadrilateral of Jerusalem, are four double labels in bold capitals. At top left Haret En-Nassara and, beneath it, Christian Quarter; at bottom left Haret El-Arman and Armenian Quarter; at bottom centre Haret El-Yehud and Jews' Quarter; and at top right – the big innovation, covering perhaps half the city – Haret El-Muslimin and Mohammedan Quarter, had shown this before. Every map has shown it since. The idea, in 1841, of a Mohammedan (that is, Muslim) quarter of Jerusalem is bizarre. It's like a Catholic quarter of Rome. A Hindu quarter of Delhi. Nobody living there would conceive of the city in such a way. At that time, and for centuries before and decades after, Jerusalem was, if the term means anything at all, a Muslim city. Many people identified in other ways, but large numbers of Jerusalemites were Muslim and they lived all over the city. A Muslim quarter could only have been dreamt up by outsiders, searching for a handle on a place they barely understood, intent on asserting their own legitimacy among a hostile population, seeing what they wanted to see. Its only purpose could be to draw attention to what it excludes.
- ^ "Old City of Jerusalem and its Walls". UNESCO World Heritage Convention. Archived from the original on 4 August 2017. Retrieved 11 September 2010.
- ^ "Selected Data on the Occasion of Jerusalem Day, 2022". cbs.gov.il. 26 May 2022. Archived from the original on 28 May 2023. Retrieved 30 March 2023.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Laub, Karin (2 December 2006). "Jerusalem Barrier Causes Major Upheaval". The Washington Post. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 7 April 2019. Retrieved 10 March 2007.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d "Table III/9 – Population in Israel and in Jerusalem, by Religion, 1988 – 2020" (PDF). jerusaleminstitute.org.il. 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 27 December 2022.
- ^ Pellegrino, Charles R. (1995). Return to Sodom & Gomorrah (Second revised ed.). Harper Paperbacks. p. 271. ISBN 978-0-380-72633-2.
[see footnote]
- ^ Jump up to: a b Tubb (1998), pp. 13–14.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Mark Smith in "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" states "Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000 BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period." (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" (Eerdman's)
- ^ Jump up to: a b Since the 10th century BCE:
- "Israel was first forged into a unified nation from Jerusalem some 3,000 years ago, when King David seized the crown and united the twelve tribes from this city... For a thousand years Jerusalem was the seat of Jewish sovereignty, the household site of kings, the location of its legislative councils and courts. In exile, the Jewish nation came to be identified with the city that had been the site of its ancient capital. Jews, wherever they were, prayed for its restoration." Roger Friedland, Richard D. Hecht. To Rule Jerusalem, University of California Press, 2000, p. 8. ISBN 978-0-520-22092-8
- "The centrality of Jerusalem to Judaism is so strong that even secular Jews express their devotion and attachment to the city, and cannot conceive of a modern State of Israel without it.... For Jews Jerusalem is sacred simply because it exists... Though Jerusalem's sacred character goes back three millennia...". Leslie J. Hoppe. The Holy City: Jerusalem in the theology of the Old Testament, Liturgical Press, 2000, p. 6. ISBN 978-0-8146-5081-3
- "Ever since King David made Jerusalem the capital of Israel 3,000 years ago, the city has played a central role in Jewish existence." Mitchell Geoffrey Bard, The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Middle East Conflict, Alpha Books, 2002, p. 330. ISBN 978-0-02-864410-3
- "Jerusalem became the center of the Jewish people some 3,000 years ago" Moshe Maoz, Sari Nusseibeh, Jerusalem: Points of Friction – And Beyond, Brill Academic Publishers, 2000, p. 1. ISBN 978-90-411-8843-4
- ^ "Basic Facts you should know: Jerusalem". Anti-Defamation League. 2007. Archived from the original on 4 January 2013. Retrieved 28 March 2007.
The Jewish people are inextricably bound to the city of Jerusalem. No other city has played such a dominant role in the history, politics, culture, religion, national life and consciousness of a people as has Jerusalem in the life of Jewry and Judaism. Since King David established the city as the capital of the Jewish state circa 1000 BCE, it has served as the symbol and most profound expression of the Jewish people's identity as a nation."
- ^ Reinoud Oosting, The Role of Zion/Jerusalem in Isaiah 40–55: A Corpus-Linguistic Approach, p. 117, at Google Books Brill 2012 pp. 117–18. Isaiah 48:2; 51:1; Nehemiah 11:1, 18; cf. Joel 4:17: Daniel 5:24. The Isaiah section where they occur belong to deutero-Isaiah.
- ^ Shalom M. Paul, Isaiah 40–66, p. 306, at Google Books The 'holiness' (qodesh) arises from the temple in its midst, the root q-d-š referring to a sanctuary. The concept is attested in Mesopotamian literature, and the epithet may serve to distinguish Babylon, the city of exiles, from the city of the Temple, to where they are enjoined to return.
- ^ Golb, Norman (1997). "Karen Armstrong's Jerusalem – One City, Three Faiths". The Bible and Interpretation. Archived from the original on 11 October 2013. Retrieved 10 July 2013.
The available texts of antiquity indicate that the concept was created by one or more personalities among the Jewish spiritual leadership, and that this occurred no later than the 6th century B.C.
- ^ Isaiah 52:1 πόλις ἡ ἁγία.
- ^ Joseph T. Lienhard, The Bible, the Church, and Authority: The Canon of the Christian Bible in History and Theology, Liturgical Press, 1995 pp. 65–66: 'The Septuagint is a Jewish translation and was also used in the synagogue. But at the end of the first century C.E. many Jews ceased to use the Septuagint because the early Christians had adopted it as their own translation, and it began to be considered a Christian translation.'
- ^ Jump up to: a b Third-holiest city in Islam:
- Esposito, John L. (2002). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 157. ISBN 978-0-19-515713-0.
The Night Journey made Jerusalem the third holiest city in Islam
- Brown, Leon Carl (2000). "Setting the Stage: Islam and Muslims". Religion and State: The Muslim Approach to Politics. Columbia University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-231-12038-8.
The third holiest city of Islam—Jerusalem—is also very much in the center...
- Hoppe, Leslie J. (2000). The Holy City: Jerusalem in the Theology of the Old Testament. Michael Glazier Books. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-8146-5081-3.
Jerusalem has always enjoyed a prominent place in Islam. Jerusalem is often referred to as the third holiest city in Islam...
- Esposito, John L. (2002). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 157. ISBN 978-0-19-515713-0.
- ^ Middle East peace plans by Willard A. Beling: "The Aqsa Mosque on the Temple Mount is the third holiest site in Sunni Islam after Mecca and Medina".
- ^ Lewis, Bernard; Holt, P. M.; Lambton, Ann, eds. (1986). Cambridge History of Islam. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Quran 17:1–3
- ^ Buchanan, Allen (2004). States, Nations, and Borders: The Ethics of Making Boundaries. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52575-6. Retrieved 9 June 2008.
- ^ Kollek, Teddy (1977). "Afterword". In John Phillips (ed.). A Will to Survive – Israel: the Faces of the Terror 1948-the Faces of Hope Today. Dial Press/James Wade.
about 91 hectares (225 acres)
- ^ Walid Khalidi (1996) Islam, the West and Jerusalem. Center for Contemporary Arab Studies & Center for Muslim–Christian Understanding, Georgetown University, quotes the breakdown as follows: West Jerusalem in 1948: 16,261 dunums (14%); West Jerusalem added in 1967: 23,000 dunums (20%); East Jerusalem under Jordanian rule: 6,000 dunums (5%); West Bank area annexed and incorporated into East Jerusalem by Israel: 67,000 dunums (61%)
- ^ Aronson, Geoffrey (1995). "Settlement Monitor: Quarterly Update on Developments". Journal of Palestine Studies. 25 (1). University of California Press, Institute for Palestine Studies: 131–40. doi:10.2307/2538120. ISSN 0377-919X. JSTOR 2538120.
West Jerusalem: 35%; East Jerusalem under Jordanian rule: 4%; West Bank area annexed and incorporated into East Jerusalem by Israel: 59%
- ^ Benvenisti, Meron (1976). Jerusalem, the Torn City. Books on Demand. p. 113. ISBN 978-0-7837-2978-7.
East Jerusalem under Jordanian rule: 6,000 dunums; West Bank area annexed and incorporated into East Jerusalem by Israel: 67,000
- ^ "Resolution 298 September 25, 1971". United Nations. 25 September 1971. Archived from the original on 19 August 2013. Retrieved 25 July 2018.
Recalling its resolutions... concerning measures and actions by Israel designed to change the status of the Israeli-occupied section of Jerusalem,...
- ^ "The status of Jerusalem" (PDF). The Question of Palestine & the United Nations. United Nations Department of Public Information. 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 August 2019.
East Jerusalem has been considered, by both the General Assembly and the Security Council, as part of the occupied Palestinian territory.
- ^ "Israeli authorities back 600 new East Jerusalem homes". BBC News. 26 February 2010. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 18 September 2013.
- ^ "Israel plans 1,300 East Jerusalem Jewish settler homes". BBC News. 9 November 2010. Archived from the original on 19 November 2018. Retrieved 20 June 2018.
East Jerusalem is regarded as occupied Palestinian territory by the international community, but Israel says it is part of its territory.
- ^ Meir Ben-Dov, Historical Atlas of Jerusalem, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2002, p. 23.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Binz, Stephen J. (2005). Jerusalem, the Holy City. Connecticut: Twenty-Third Publications. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-58595-365-3. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
- ^ G. Johannes Bottereck, Helmer Ringgren, Heinz-Josef Fabry, (eds.) Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, tr. David E. Green, vol. XV, pp. 48–49 William B. Eeerdmanns Co. Grand Rapids, Michigan/Cambridge UK 2006, pp. 45–46
- ^ Elon, Amos (1996). Jerusalem. HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. ISBN 978-0-00-637531-9. Archived from the original on 10 March 2003. Retrieved 26 April 2007.
The epithet may have originated in the ancient name of Jerusalem–Salem (after the pagan deity of the city), which is etymologically connected in the Semitic languages with the words for peace (shalom in Hebrew, salam in Arabic).
- ^ Ringgren, H., Die Religionen des Alten Orients (Göttingen, 1979), 212.
- ^ Hastings, James (2004). A Dictionary of the Bible: Volume II: (Part II: I – Kinsman), Volume 2. Honolulu, Hawaii: Reprinted from 1898 edition by University Press of the Pacific. p. 584. ISBN 978-1-4102-1725-7. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (2007). Historic cities of the Islamic world. The Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill NV. pp. 225–226. ISBN 978-90-04-15388-2. Archived from the original on 18 February 2023. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Denise DeGarmo (9 September 2011). "Abode of Peace?". Wandering Thoughts. Center for Conflict Studies. Archived from the original on 26 April 2012. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
- ^ Marten H. Wouldstra, The Book of Joshua, William B. Eerdmanns Co. Grand Rapids, Michigan (1981) 1995, p. 169 n.2
- ^ Bosworth, Francis Edward (1968). Millennium: a Latin reader, A. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. p. 183. ASIN B0000CO4LE. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
- ^ Wallace, Edwin Sherman (August 1977). Jerusalem the Holy. New York: Arno Press. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-405-10298-1.
A similar view was held by those who give the Hebrew dual to the word
- ^ Smith, George Adam (1907). Jerusalem: The Topography, Economics and History from the Earliest Times to A.D. 70. Hodder and Stoughton. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-7905-2935-6.
The termination -aim or -ayim used to be taken as the ordinary termination of the dual of nouns, and was explained as signifying the upper and lower cities
(see Jerusalem: The Topography, Economics and History from the Earliest Times to A.D. 70, Volume 1, p. 251, at Google Books) - ^ Sethe, Kurt (1926) "Die Ächtung feindlicher Fürsten, Völker und Dinge auf altägyptischen Tongefäßscherben des Mittleren Reiches nach den Originalen im Berliner Museum herausgegeben und erklärt" in Abhandlungen der Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1926 issue, philosophisch-historische Klasse, number 5, page 53
- ^ Hoch, James E (1994). Semitic Words in Egyptian Texts of the New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
- ^ David Noel Freedman; Allen C. Myers; Astrid B. Beck (2000). Eerdmans dictionary of the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 694–95. ISBN 978-0-8028-2400-4. Archived from the original on 18 February 2023. Retrieved 19 August 2010.
- ^ G. Johannes Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren (eds.) Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, (tr. David E. Green) William B. Eerdmann, Grand Rapids Michigan, Cambridge, UK 1990, Vol. VI, p. 348
- ^ Vaughn, Andrew G.; Ann E. Killebrew (1 August 2003). "Jerusalem at the Time of the United Monarchy". Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: the First Temple Period. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. pp. 32–33. ISBN 978-1-58983-066-0. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 10 May 2016.
- ^ Shalem, Yisrael (3 March 1997). "History of Jerusalem from its Beginning to David". Jerusalem: Life Throughout the Ages in a Holy City. Bar-Ilan University, Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies. Archived from the original on 17 January 2007. Retrieved 18 January 2007.
- ^ "The El Amarna Letters from Canaan". TAU.ac.il. Archived from the original on 14 February 2013. Retrieved 11 September 2010.
- ^ Ginzberg, Louis (1909). The Legends of the Jews Volume I: The Akedah Archived 13 March 2020 at the Wayback Machine (Translated by Henrietta Szold) Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society.
- ^ Writing, Literacy, and Textual Transmission: The Production of Literary by Jessica N. Whisenant p. 323
- ^ King Manasseh and Child Sacrifice: Biblical Distortions of Historical Realities by Francesca Stavrakopoulou p. 98
- ^ Oral World and Written Word: Ancient Israelite Literature by Susan Niditch p. 48
- ^ The Mountain of the Lord by Benyamin Mazar p. 60
- ^ Blessing and Curse in Syro-Palestinian Inscriptions by T. G Crawford p. 137
- ^ Discovering the World of the Bible by LaMar C. Berrett p. 178
- ^ Jump up to: a b Baruch, Yuval; Levi, Danit; Reich, Ronny (2020). "The Name Jerusalem in a Late Second Temple Period Jewish Inscription". Tel Aviv. 47 (1): 108–18. doi:10.1080/03344355.2020.1707452. S2CID 219879544.
- ^ Judges 19:10: יְב֔וּס הִ֖יא יְרוּשָׁלִָ֑ם: "Jebus, it [is] Jerusalem"
- ^ "Bible, King James Version". umich.edu. Archived from the original on 11 December 2015. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
- ^ The Oxford encyclopedia of ancient Greece and Rome, Volume 1, p. 113, at Google Books, p. 113
- ^ 2 Samuel 5:7,9. Cited in Finkelstein, Israel; Mazar, Amihai (2007). Brian B. Schmidt (ed.). The Quest for the Historical Israel: Debating Archaeology and the History of Early Israel. Society of Biblical Literature. p. 127. ISBN 978-1-58983-277-0. Archived from the original on 6 July 2023. Retrieved 9 January 2022.
- ^ Bar-Kochva, Bezalel (2002). Judas Maccabeus: The Jewish Struggle Against the Seleucids. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 447. ISBN 978-0-521-01683-4.
- ^ Mazar, Eilat (2002). The Complete Guide to the Temple Mount Excavations. Jerusalem: Shoham Academic Research and Publication. p. 1. ISBN 978-965-90299-1-4.
- ^ Genesis 14:18
- ^ For example:
- Book of Jubilees 30:1.
- (See: The text translated by R.H. Charles, with introduction and notes – The book of Jubilees, or The little Genesis. London: A. & C. Black. 1902. p. 178: Chapter 30, verse 1.
- the Septuagint version of Jer 48:5 (as Συχὲμ Sukhèm)
- and possibly the Masoretic text of Genesis 33:18 (see KJV and the margin translation of the Revised Version).
- Book of Jubilees 30:1.
- ^ E.g., the Vulgate and Peshitta versions. J.A. Emerton, "The site of Salem: the City of Melchizedek (Genesis xiv 18)," pp. 45–72 of Studies in the Pentateuch ed. by J.A. Emerton, vol. 41 of Supplements to Vetus Testamentum (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1990) ("Emerton"), p. 45. See also John 3:23 where "Salim" or "Sylem" (Συχὲμ) is said to be near Ænon, thought to be in the valley of Mount Ebal, one of two mountains in the vicinity of Nablus.
- ^ Onklelos, Pseudo-Jonathan and Neofiti I. Emerton, p. 45.
- ^ Genesis 12:6–7 (where Abram built an altar), Genesis 33:18–20, Deuteronomy 11:29 & 28:11, Joshua 8:33, 1 Kings 12. Emerton, p. 63.
- ^ Paul Winter, "Note on Salem – Jerusalem", Novum Testamentum, vol. 2, pp. 151–152 (1957).
- ^ Raymond Hayward. "Melchizedek as Priest of the Jerusalem Temple in Talmud, Midrash, and Targum" (PDF). The Temple Studies Group. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 September 2015. Retrieved 24 January 2015.
- ^ "Bible Gateway passage: ﻳﺸﻮﻉ 10:1 - Ketab El Hayat". Bible Gateway. Archived from the original on 29 December 2023. Retrieved 29 December 2023.
- ^ أعمال الرسل 12:1 فرَجَعَ الرّسُلُ إلى أُورُشليمَ مِنَ الجبَلِ الذي يُقالُ لَه جبَلُ الزّيتونِ، وهوَ قَريبٌ مِنْ أُورُشليمَ على مَسيرةِ سَبتٍ مِنها. | الترجمة العربية المشتركة (المشتركة) | Download The Bible App Now (in Arabic). Archived from the original on 29 December 2023. Retrieved 29 December 2023.
- ^ "The Official Website of Jerusalem". Municipality of Jerusalem. 19 September 2011. Archived from the original on 27 April 2007.
- ^ Sonbol, Amira (1996). Women, the Family, and Divorce Laws in Islamic History. p. 133.
- ^ "Israeli Archaeologists Discover 7,000-Year-Old Settlement". The New York Times. 17 February 2016. Archived from the original on 29 February 2016. Retrieved 25 July 2018.
- ^ "No city in the world, not even Athens or Rome, ever played as great a role in the life of a nation for so long a time, as Jerusalem has done in the life of the Jewish people." David Ben-Gurion, 1947
- ^ "For three thousand years, Jerusalem has been the center of Jewish hope and longing. No other city has played such a dominant role in the history, culture, religion and consciousness of a people as has Jerusalem in the life of Jewry and Judaism. Throughout centuries of exile, Jerusalem remained alive in the hearts of Jews everywhere as the focal point of Jewish history, the symbol of ancient glory, spiritual fulfillment and modern renewal. This heart and soul of the Jewish people engenders the thought that if you want one simple word to symbolize all of Jewish history, that word would be 'Jerusalem.'" Teddy Kollek (DC: Washington Institute For Near East Policy, 1990), pp. 19–20.
- ^ John Quigley (1998). The Palestine Yearbook of International Law, 1996–1997. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 32–. ISBN 978-90-411-1009-1.
Palestine's claim to Jerusalem is founded on the longtime status of the Palestinian Arabs as the majority population of Palestine. On that basis the Palestinians claim sovereignty over all of Palestine. including Jerusalem, both East and West. The Palestinians claim descent from the Canaanites, the earliest recorded inhabitants of Palestine. Although political control changed hands many times through history, this population, which was Arabized by the Arab conquest of the seventh century A.D., remained into the twentieth century.
- ^ "(With reference to Palestinians in Ottoman times) Although proud of their Arab heritage and ancestry, the Palestinians considered themselves to be descended not only from Arab conquerors of the seventh century but also from indigenous peoples who had lived in the country since time immemorial, including the ancient Hebrews and the Canaanites before them. Acutely aware of the distinctiveness of Palestinian history, the Palestinians saw themselves as the heirs of its rich associations." Walid Khalidi, 1984, Before Their Diaspora: A Photographic History of the Palestinians, 1876–1948. Institute for Palestine Studies
- ^ Bisharat, George (2010). "Maximizing Rights". In Susan M. Akram; Michael Dumper; Michael Lynk (eds.). International Law and the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: A Rights-Based Approach to Middle East Peace. Routledge. p. 311. ISBN 978-1-136-85098-1. Archived from the original on 18 February 2023. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
As we have noted previously the international legal status of Jerusalem is contested and Israel's designation of it as its capital has not been recognized by the international community. However its claims of sovereign rights to the city are stronger with respect to West Jerusalem than with respect to East Jerusalem.
- ^ Eric H. Cline. "How Jews and Arabs Use (and Misuse) the History of Jerusalem to Score Points". Archived from the original on 17 August 2013. Retrieved 22 September 2010.
- ^ Eli E. Hertz. "One Nation's Capital Throughout History" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 January 2011. Retrieved 22 September 2010.
- ^ Negev, Avraham; Gibson, Shimon, eds. (2001). "Jerusalem". Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land. New York; London: Continuum. pp. 260–261. ISBN 978-0-8264-1316-1.
- ^ Freedman, David Noel (2000). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 694–95. ISBN 978-0-8028-2400-4.
1. Ceramic evidence indicates some occupation of Ophel as early as early as the Chalcolithic period. 2. Remains of a building witness to a permanent settlement on Ophel during the early centuries (ca. 3000–2800 B.C.E.) of the Early Bronze Age
- ^ Nadav Naʼaman, Canaan in the 2nd Millennium B.C.E., p. 180.
- ^ Jane M. Cahill, 'Jerusalem at the time of the United Monarchy', in Andrew G. Vaughn, Ann E. Killebrew (eds.) Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: The First Temple Period, Society of Biblical Literature, 2003 p. 33.
- ^ Israel Finkelstein, Neil Asher Silberman, The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts, Simon and Schuster 2002 p. 239.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, Keys to Jerusalem: Collected Essays, Oxford University Press, 2012 pp. 5–6.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Regev, Johanna; Gadot, Yuval; Uziel, Joe; Chalaf, Ortal; Shalev, Yiftah; Roth, Helena; Shalom, Nitsan; Szanton, Nahshon; Bocher, Efrat; Pearson, Charlotte L.; Brown, David M.; Mintz, Eugenia; Regev, Lior; Boaretto, Elisabetta (29 April 2024). "Radiocarbon chronology of Iron Age Jerusalem reveals calibration offsets and architectural developments: Abstract". PNAS. 121 (19). National Academy of Sciences; University of Arizona: e2321024121. doi:10.1073/pnas.2321024121. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 11087761. PMID 38683984.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c New carbon-dating techniques enable 'absolute chronology' of First Temple-era Jerusalem, Gavriel Fiske for The Times of Israel, 30 April 2024. Accessed 6 July 2024.
- ^ Rendsburg, Gary (2008). "Israel without the Bible". In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 11–12
- ^ Robb Andrew Young, Hezekiah in History and Tradition, p. 49.
- ^ "Department of Archaeology – Silwan, Jerusalem: The Survey of the Iron Age Necropolis". TAU.ac.il. Archived from the original on 29 May 2009. Retrieved 7 December 2012.
- ^ "The Israelite Tower". The Jewish Quarter. Archived from the original on 5 October 2012. Retrieved 7 December 2012.
- ^ "Cistern dated to First Temple period found in Jerusalem". Matti Friedman for The Times of Israel. 6 September 2012. Archived from the original on 10 June 2016. Retrieved 10 May 2016.
- ^ Rocca, Samuel (2010). The fortifications of ancient Israel and Judah, 1200–586 BC. Hook, Adam. Oxford: Osprey. p. 30. ISBN 978-1-84603-508-1. OCLC 368020822.
- ^ Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts. New York: Free Press. p. 307. ISBN 978-0-684-86912-4. OCLC 44509358. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 11 August 2022.
Intensive excavations throughout Jerusalem have shown that the city was indeed systematically destroyed by the Babylonians. The conflagration seems to have been general. When activity on the ridge of the City of David resumed in the Persian period, the-new suburbs on the western hill that had flourished since at least the time of Hezekiah were not reoccupied.
- ^ Zank, Michael. "Capital of Judah I (930–722)". Boston University. Archived from the original on 28 May 2013. Retrieved 22 January 2007.
- ^ K. L. Noll, Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: An Introduction, Continuum Publishing, 2002 p. 78.
- ^ Ann Killebrew, Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, and Early Israel, 1300–1100 B.C.E,, Society of Biblical Literature, 2005, p. 152
- ^ Joshua 18:28
- ^ Nadav Na'aman Canaan in the 2nd Millennium B.C.E., p. 183.
- ^ Israel Finkelstein, Neil Asher Silberman, The Bible Unearthed, p. 238.
- ^ Erlanger, Steven (5 August 2005). "King David's Palace Is Found, Archaeologist Says". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 12 January 2013. Retrieved 24 May 2007.
- ^ Finkelstein & Mazar (2007), pp. 113, 125–28, 165, 174 Archived 30 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 30 November 2022.
- ^ 1 Samuel 31:1–13:2 Samuel 5:4–5; Finkelstein, Silberman, op.cit. p. 20.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Michael, E.; Sharon O. Rusten; Philip Comfort; Walter A. Elwell (2005). The Complete Book of When and Where: in the Bible and Throughout History. Tyndale House Publishers, Inc. pp. 20–21, 67. ISBN 978-0-8423-5508-7.
- ^ Merling, David (26 August 1993). "Where is the Ark of the Covenant?". Andrews University. Archived from the original on 17 September 2006. Retrieved 22 January 2007.
- ^ Richard A. Freund, Digging Through the Bible: Modern Archaeology and the Ancient Bible, p. 9, at Google Books, Rowman & Littlefield, 2009, p. 9.
- ^ Zank, Michael. "Capital of Judah (930–586)". Boston University. Archived from the original on 15 July 2015. Retrieved 22 January 2007.
- ^ "Ezra 1:1–4; 6:1–5". Biblegateway.com. Archived from the original on 18 February 2023. Retrieved 11 September 2010.
- ^ Kuhrt, Amélie (1983). "The Cyrus Cylinder and Achaemenid Imperial Policy". Journal for the Study of the Old Testament. 8 (25): 83–97. doi:10.1177/030908928300802507. ISSN 0309-0892. S2CID 170508879. Archived from the original on 24 January 2022. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
- ^ Sicker, Martin (2001). Between Rome and Jerusalem: 300 Years of Roman-Judaean Relations. Praeger Publishers. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-275-97140-3.
- ^ Zank, Michael. "Center of the Persian Satrapy of Judah (539–323)". Boston University. Archived from the original on 14 April 2016. Retrieved 22 January 2007.
- ^ Morgenstern, Julian (1938). "A Chapter in the History of the High-Priesthood (Concluded)". The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures. 55 (October 1938) (4). The University of Chicago Press: 360–77. doi:10.1086/amerjsemilanglit.55.4.3088118. JSTOR 3088118. S2CID 147434998.
there is a great mass of evidence scattered throughout biblical literature that at some time very soon after the accession of Xerxes to the Persian throne in 485 B.C. Jerusalem was besieged and captured by a coalition of hostile neighboring states, Edom, Moab, Ammon, Tyre, and Philistia. Its walls were torn down, its buildings razed, the Temple itself burned and destroyed, at least in part, and the great mass of the people scattered...
- ^ "Nehemiah 1:3; 2:1–8". Biblegateway.com. Archived from the original on 18 February 2023. Retrieved 11 September 2010.
- ^ "Ossuary bearing an Aramaic inscription reading, "Simon, builder of the Temple" – Unknown". Google Arts & Culture. Archived from the original on 10 August 2021. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
- ^ "Archaeological Sites in Israel-Jerusalem- Burial Sites and Tombs of the Second Temple Period". GxMSDev. Archived from the original on 31 July 2016.
- ^ Har-El, Menashe (2004). Golden Jerusalem. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House. ISBN 978-965-229-254-4. Retrieved 18 September 2013.
- ^ Hannah M. Cotton; Leah Di Segni; Werner Eck; Benjamin Isaac; Alla Kushnir-Stein; Haggai Misgav; Jonathan Price; Israel Roll; Ada Yardeni, eds. (2010). Jerusalem, Part 1: 1–704. Walter de Gruyter. p. 79. Retrieved 18 September 2013.
- ^ Schiffman, Lawrence H. (1991). From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism. Ktav Publishing House. pp. 60–79. ISBN 978-0-88125-371-9.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Har-El, Menashe (1977). This Is Jerusalem. Canaan Publishing House. pp. 68–95. ISBN 978-0-86628-002-0.
- ^ Zank, Michael. "The Temple Mount". Boston University. Archived from the original on 21 October 2012. Retrieved 22 January 2007.
- ^ Crossan, John Dominic (26 February 1993). The Historical Jesus: the life of a Mediterranean Jewish peasant (Reprinted ed.). San Francisco: HarperCollins. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-06-061629-8.
from 4 BCE until 6 CE, when Rome, after exiling Herod Archelaus to Gaul, assumed direct prefectural control of his territories
- ^ Jump up to: a b Weksler-Bdolah, Shlomit (16 December 2019). Aelia Capitolina – Jerusalem in the Roman period: in light of archaeological research. BRILL. p. 3. ISBN 978-90-04-41707-6. OCLC 1170143447. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
Following the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 CE, a new era began in the city's history. The Herodian city was destroyed and a military camp of the Tenth Roman Legion established on part of the ruins. In around 130 CE, the Roman emperor Hadrian founded a new city in place of Herodian Jerusalem next to the military camp. He honored the city with the status of a colony and named it Aelia Capitolina.
- ^ Goodman, Martin (2008). Rome and Jerusalem: The Clash of Ancient Civilizations. Penguin. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-14-029127-8. OCLC 1016414322.
The capitulation of the rest of Jerusalem was rapid. Those parts of the lower city already under Roman control were deliberately set on fire. The erection of new towers to break down the walls of the upper city was completed on 7 Elul (in mid-August), and the troops forced their way in. By 8 Elul the whole city was in Roman hands—and in ruins. In recompense for the ferocious fighting they had been required to endure, the soldiers were given free rein to loot and kill, until eventually Titus ordered that the city be razed to the ground, "leaving only the loftiest of the towers, Phasael, Hippicus and Mariamme, and the portion of the wall enclosing the city on the west: the latter as an encampment for the garrison that was to remain, and the towers to indicate to posterity the nature of the city and of the strong defences which had yet yielded to Roman prowess. All the rest of the wall encompassing the city was so completely levelled to the ground as to leave future visitors to the spot no ground for believing that it had ever been inhabited."
- ^ Ben-Ami, Doron; Tchekhanovets, Yana (2011). "The Lower City of Jerusalem on the Eve of Its Destruction, 70 CE: A View From Hanyon Givati". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 364: 61–85. doi:10.5615/bullamerschoorie.364.0061. ISSN 0003-097X. S2CID 164199980. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
- ^ Jones, Kenneth R. (2011). Jewish reactions to the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70: Apocalypses and related Pseudepigrapha. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-21027-1. OCLC 787865898.
Scholarly attention has focused primarily on the texts of Josephus to recapture Jewish opinion in the years after the failure and suppression of the first revolt which ended, excepting the reduction of a few fortresses, with the burning of the temple and razing of Jerusalem.
- ^ Zissu, Boaz (2018). "Interbellum Judea 70-132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective". In Joshua Schwartz; Peter J. Tomson (eds.). Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE. Leiden: Brill. p. 19. ISBN 978-90-04-34986-5. OCLC 988856967.
- ^ Josephus, Jewish War, 7:1:1
- ^ Montefiore, Simon Sebag (2012). Jerusalem: The Biography. New York: Vintage. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-307-28050-3.
- ^ Berenbaum, Michael; Skolnik, Fred, eds. (2007). "Bar Kokhba". Encyclopaedia Judaica. Quoting from Gibson, Shimon. Encyclopaedia Hebraica (2 ed.). Vol. 3 (2 ed.). Thomson Gale. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-02-865931-2.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Lehmann, Clayton Miles (22 February 2007). "Palestine: History". The On-line Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces. The University of South Dakota. Archived from the original on 10 March 2008. Retrieved 18 April 2007.
- ^ Elizabeth Speller, Following Hadrian: A Second-Century Journey Through the Roman Empire, p. 218, at Google Books, Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 218
- ^ Lehmann, Clayton Miles. "Palestine: People and Places". The On-line Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces. The University of South Dakota. Archived from the original on 10 March 2008. Retrieved 18 April 2007.
- ^ Peter Schäfer (2003). The Bar Kokhba war reconsidered: new perspectives on the second Jewish revolt against Rome. Mohr Siebeck. pp. 36–. ISBN 978-3-16-148076-8. Archived from the original on 18 February 2023. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
- ^ Cohen, Shaye J. D. (1996). "Judaism to Mishnah: 135–220 C.E". In Hershel Shanks (ed.). Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism: A Parallel History of their Origins and Early Development. Washington, DC: Biblical Archaeology Society. p. 196.
- ^ Emily Jane Hunt, Christianity in the second century: the case of Tatian, p. 7, at Google Books, Psychology Press, 2003, p. 7
- ^ E. Mary Smallwood The Jews under Roman rule: from Pompey to Diocletian : a study in political relations, p. 460, at Google Books Brill, 1981, p. 460.
- ^ Klein, E. (2010), "The Origins of the Rural Settlers in Judean Mountains and Foothills during the Late Roman Period", In: E. Baruch., A. Levy-Reifer and A. Faust (eds.), New Studies on Jerusalem, Vol. 16. Ramat-Gan, p. 325-327 (Hebrew). "Following the failure of the revolt, the process of the Roman administration's takeover of the city's lands and its surroundings was completed [...] The historical sources confirm that Hadrian gave the city the status of a colony of the citizens of Rome, a title that was awarded almost exclusively to cities where veterans and their families lived. [...] The totality of the data allows us to conclude that a significant component of the population of Ilia Capitolina is the veterans of the Roman army and settlers from the west of the empire."
- ^ Zank, Michael. "Byzantian Jerusalem". Boston University. Archived from the original on 4 January 2007. Retrieved 1 February 2007.
- ^ Gideon Avni, The Byzantine-Islamic Transition in Palestine: An Archaeological Approach, p. 144, at Google Books, Oxford University Press 2014 p. 144.
- ^ Conybeare, Frederick C. (1910). The Capture of Jerusalem by the Persians in 614 AD. English Historical Review 25. pp. 502–17.
- ^ Hidden Treasures in Jerusalem Archived 6 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine, the Jerusalem Tourism Authority
- ^ Jerusalem blessed, Jerusalem cursed: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in the Holy City from David's time to our own. By Thomas A. Idinopulos, I.R. Dee, 1991, p. 152
- ^ Horowitz, Elliot. "Modern Historians and the Persian Conquest of Jerusalem in 614". Jewish Social Studies. Archived from the original on 26 May 2008. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
- ^ Rodney Aist, The Christian Topography of Early Islamic Jerusalem, Brepols Publishers, 2009 p. 56: 'Persian control of Jerusalem lasted from 614 to 629'.
- ^ Goldberg, Jeffrey (29 January 2001). "Arafat's Gift". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 14 July 2015. Retrieved 11 July 2015.
- ^ Paul Stephenson (2022). New Rome: The Empire in the East. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674659629. Archived from the original on 26 October 2023. Retrieved 26 October 2023.
- ^ Dan Bahat (1996). The Illustrated Atlas of Jerusalem. Carta. p. 71. ISBN 978-965-220-348-9.
- ^ Ben-Dov, M. Historical Atlas of Jerusalem. Translated by David Louvish. New York: Continuum, 2002, p. 171
- ^ Linquist, J.M., The Temple of Jerusalem, Praeger, London, 2008, p. 184
- ^ Grabar, Oleg. The Shape of the Holy: Early Islamic Jerusalem. With Contributions by Mohammad al-Asad, Abeer Audeh, Said Nuseibeh. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996, p. 112
- ^ In the Lands of the Prophet, Time-Life, p. 29
- ^ William Montgomery Watt (7 February 1974). Muhammad: prophet and statesman. Oxford University Press. pp. 112–13. ISBN 978-0-19-881078-0. Archived from the original on 18 February 2023. Retrieved 29 December 2011.
- ^ Gilbert (1978), p. 7.
- ^ Gil, Moshe (February 1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. pp. 70–71. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
- ^ Runciman, Steven (1951). A History of the Crusades:The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Vol. 1. Penguin Books. 3–4. ISBN 978-0-521-34770-9.
- ^ Steven Runciman, A History of the Crusades, (3 vols. 1951–1954, Cambridge University Press), Penguin Books, 1965 vol. 1, pp. 3–4, citing Eutychius, Michael the Syrian and Elias of Nisibin. The many sources conserving the story are summarized in Hugues Vincent, F. M. Abel, Jérusalem Nouvelle Archived 27 March 2024 at the Wayback Machine, 1914 tome 2, pp. 930–932,
- ^ Jump up to: a b Shalem, Yisrael. "The Early Arab Period – 638–1099". Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies, Bar-Ilan University. Archived from the original on 16 December 2015. Retrieved 20 July 2008.
- ^ Rivka Gonen, Contested holiness: Jewish, Muslim, and Christian perspectives on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, Ktav Publishing House, 2003, p. 85; The History of al-Tabari, vol. XII, Albany: State University of New York Press 2007, pp. 194–95.
- ^ Hoppe, Leslie J. (August 2000). The Holy City: Jerusalem in the Theology of the Old Testament. Michael Glazier Books. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-8146-5081-3.
- ^ Zank, Michael. "Abbasid Period and Fatimid Rule (750–1099)". Boston University. Archived from the original on 10 September 2019. Retrieved 1 February 2007.
- ^ Islam encyclopaedia Archived 26 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine (in Turkish) Vol. 26 pp. 323–27
- ^ David E. Sklare, 'Yūsuf al-Bașīr: Theological Aspects of his Halakhic Works,' in Daniel Frank (ed.) The Jews of Medieval Islam: Community, Society & Identity, E. J. Brill, 1995, pp. 249–270. p. 249. They were known as avelei șion (Mourners of Zion) or Shoshanim (Lilies(among the thorns))
- ^ Adrian J. Boas, Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades, Routledge 2001, pp. 14, 35.
- ^ Hull, Michael D. (June 1999). "First Crusade: Siege of Jerusalem". Military History. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 18 May 2007.
- ^ Jump up to: a b "Main Events in the History of Jerusalem". Jerusalem: The Endless Crusade. The CenturyOne Foundation. 2003. Archived from the original on 13 January 2016. Retrieved 2 February 2007.
- ^ Adrian J. Boas, Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades, Routledge 2001, pp. 16, 19
- ^ Abu-Lughod, Janet L.; Dumper, Michael (2007). Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 209. ISBN 978-1-57607-919-5. Archived from the original on 18 February 2023. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
- ^ Larry H. Addington (1990). The Patterns of War Through the Eighteenth Century. Midland book. Indiana University Press. p. 59. ISBN 978-0-253-20551-3. Archived from the original on 18 February 2023. Retrieved 30 May 2014.
in the Sixth Crusade, Frederick II ...concluded a treaty with the Saracens in 1229 that placed Jerusalem under Christian control but allowed Muslim and Christian alike freedom of access to the religious shrines of the city. ... Within fifteen years of Frederick's departure from the Holy Land, the Khwarisimian Turks, successors to the Seljuks, rampaged through Syria and Palestine, capturing Jerusalem in 1244. (Jerusalem would not be ruled again by Christians until the British occupied it in December 1917, during World War I).
- ^ Pringle, Denys (2007). The Churches of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: A Corpus. Vol. 3, The City of Jerusalem. Cambridge University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-521-39038-5. Archived from the original on 18 February 2023. Retrieved 30 May 2014.
During the period of Christian control of Jerusalem between 1229 and 1244 ...
- ^ Wharton, A.J. (2006). Selling Jerusalem: Relics, Replicas, Theme Parks. University of Chicago Press. p. 106. ISBN 978-0-226-89422-5. Archived from the original on 18 February 2023. Retrieved 30 May 2014.
(footnote 19): It is perhaps worth noting that the same sultan, al-Malik al-Kamil, was later involved in the negotiations with Emperor Frederick II that briefly reestablished Latin control in Jerusalem between 1229 and 1244.
- ^ Hossein Askari (2013). Conflicts in the Persian Gulf: Origins and Evolution. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 52. ISBN 978-1-137-35838-7. Archived from the original on 18 February 2023. Retrieved 30 May 2014.
Later, during the years 1099 through 1187 AD and 1229 through 1244 AD, Christian Crusaders occupied Jerusalem ...
- ^ Ma'oz, Moshe [in German], ed. (2009). The Meeting of Civilizations: Muslim, Christian, and Jewish. Sussex Academic Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-84519-395-9. Retrieved 30 May 2014.
(Introduction by Moshe Ma'oz) ... When the Christian Crusaders occupied Jerusalem (AD 1099–1187, 1229–1244) ...
[permanent dead link] - ^ Gilbert (1978), p. 25.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Jonathan M. Bloom; Sheila S. Blair, eds. (2009). "Jerusalem". Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set. Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. p. 348. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1. Archived from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 30 May 2014.
- ^ Michael Avi-Yonah, A History of Israel and the Holy Land Archived 27 March 2024 at the Wayback Machine, A&C Black, 2003 p. 279.
- ^ Hunt Janin, Four Paths to Jerusalem: Jewish, Christian, Muslim, and Secular Pilgrimages, 1000 BCE to 2001 CE, McFarland, 2002 p. 120.
- ^ "Firuzabadi's al-Qamus al-Muhit". Google Arts & Culture. Archived from the original on 10 August 2021. Retrieved 7 October 2020.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d Burgoyne, Michael Hamilton (1987). Mamluk Jerusalem: An Architectural Study. For the British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem; the World of Islam Festival Trust. ISBN 978-0-905035-33-8.
- ^ Amnon Cohen. "Economic Life in Ottoman Jerusalem"; Cambridge University Press, 1989
- ^ Salmon, Thomas (1744). Modern history or the present state of all nations. p. 461. Archived from the original on 18 February 2023. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
- ^ Jump up to: a b "The Ottoman Period (1517–1917 CE)". Hebrew University. 2002. Archived from the original on 31 December 2009. Retrieved 24 July 2018.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Gilbert (1978), p. 37.
- ^ 1834 Palestinian Arab Revolt
- Joel Beinin (2001) Workers and peasants in the modern Middle East Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-62903-4, p. 33
- Beshara, Doumani. (1995). Rediscovering Palestine: Egyptian rule, 1831–1840 Archived 24 March 2020 at the Wayback Machine University of California Press.
- ^ Encyclopaedia Judaica, Jerusalem, Keter, 1978, Volume 9, "State of Israel (Historical Survey)", pp. 304–06
- ^ Gilbert (1978), p. 35.
- ^ Eylon, Lili (April 1999). "Jerusalem: Architecture in the Late Ottoman Period". Focus on Israel. Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 15 April 2007. Retrieved 20 April 2007.
- ^ Ellen Clare Miller, Eastern Sketches – notes of scenery, schools and tent life in Syria and Palestine. Edinburgh: William Oliphant and Company. 1871. p. 126: 'It is difficult to obtain a correct estimate of the number of inhabitants of Jerusalem...'
- ^ Jankowski, James P. (1997). Rethinking Nationalism in the Arab Middle East. Columbia University Press. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-231-10695-5.
- ^ Fruma Zachs (2019). "Children in war time: the first pupils of the Syrian (Schneller) orphanage in Jerusalem 1860–1863". Middle Eastern Studies. 55 (6): 958–73. doi:10.1080/00263206.2019.1616546. S2CID 202281138. Archived from the original on 3 October 2020. Retrieved 21 September 2020.
- ^ Jaffe, Eliezer David (1983). Israelis in Institutions: Studies in child placement, practice, and policy. Taylor & Francis. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-677-05960-0.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Ben-Yosef, Sefi [in Hebrew] (n.d.). "A historical-settlement review". In Ben-Yosef, Sefi (ed.). Israel Guide – Judaea (A useful encyclopedia for the knowledge of the country) (in Hebrew). Vol. 9. Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House. p. 50. OCLC 745203905.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: year (link) - ^ Elisha Efrat and Allen G. Noble, Planning Jerusalem Archived 6 November 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Geographical Review, Vol. 78, No. 4 (Oct. 1988), pp. 387–404: "Modern planning began only after the British conquest of Palestine in World War I… In 1918 an engineer from Alexandria, William McLean, was commissioned to draft the first city plan… These provisions… caused the city to develop mainly to the west and southwest because of the restrictions on construction in the Old City and its immediate environs and the desire to retain the eastern skyline… McLean wanted Jerusalem to expand to the north, west, and south, with little development to the east because of climatic and topographical limitations. Thus almost from the onset of British colonial rule, development was encouraged in a generally westward direction, and this bias ultimately produced the initial contrasts that distinguished the eastern and western sectors of the city. McLean also adopted the principle of urban dispersal, and he proposed two main axes, one to the northwest and the other to the southwest of the Old City. His guidelines were repeated in most of the subsequent city plans."
- ^ Fromkin, David (1 September 2001). A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East (2nd reprinted ed.). Owl Books e. pp. 312–13. ISBN 978-0-8050-6884-9.
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- ^ Mordechai Weingarten
- ^ Cattan, Henry (1981). Jerusalem. Croom Helm. ISBN 978-0-7099-0412-0. p. 51. Number of Arab districts under Jewish control.
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- ^ Klein, Menachem (2002). "Chapter 5: Rule and Role in Jerusalem". In Breger, Marshall J.; Ahimeir, Ora (eds.). Jerusalem: A City and Its Future. Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies, Syracuse University Press. p. 145. ISBN 978-0-8156-2912-2. Retrieved 14 October 2012.
On 5 December 1948, Prime Minister Ben-Gurion claimed Jerusalem as part of Israel and eight days later the Israeli Knesset declared it the capital of Israel.
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- ^ Announcement in the UK House of Commons of the recognition of the State of Israel and also of the annexation of the West Bank by the State of Jordan. Commons Debates (Hansard) 5th series, Vol. 474, pp. 1137–41. 27 April 1950. scan (PDF)
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According to Jordanian government sources, Jordan has spent about a billion dollars since 1954 on al-Aqsa renovations and maintenance.
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ancient jewish cemetery.
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- ^ Jerusalem Syndrome – The Palestinian–Israeli Battle for the Holy City, p. 53, at Google Books, pp. 53–54. Mosheh ʻAmirav, Sussex University Press, 2009
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- ^ Иерусалим как административная столица британского мандата:
- Орфали, Джейкоб Г. (1995). Куда бы вы ни пошли, люди одни и те же . Издательство Ронин. п. 25. ISBN 978-0-914171-75-1 .
В 1923 году [Иерусалим] стал столицей британского мандата в Палестине.
- Орен-Нордхайм, Майкл; Рут Карк (2001). Рут Карк . Издательство Государственного университета Уэйна. п. 36. ISBN 978-0-8143-2909-2 . Архивировано из оригинала 16 декабря 2007 года . Проверено 17 апреля 2007 г.
Три десятилетия британского правления в Палестине (1917/18–1948 гг.) стали весьма важным этапом в развитии, оказавшим неизгладимое влияние на городское планирование и развитие столицы – Иерусалима.
— профессор кафедры географии Еврейского университета в Иерусалиме . - Дампер, Майкл (1996). Политика Иерусалима с 1967 года . Издательство Колумбийского университета. п. 59. ИСБН 978-0-231-10640-5 .
город, который должен был стать административной столицей подмандатной Палестины...
- Орфали, Джейкоб Г. (1995). Куда бы вы ни пошли, люди одни и те же . Издательство Ронин. п. 25. ISBN 978-0-914171-75-1 .
- ^ Доре Голд . «Иерусалим в международной дипломатии» . Архивировано из оригинала 28 октября 2012 года . Проверено 20 июля 2008 г.
- ^ «Новый Восточный дом: история палестинского гостеприимства» . jerusalemites.org. Архивировано из оригинала 17 декабря 2010 года . Проверено 9 сентября 2011 г.
- ^ Кляйн, Менахем (2001). «ООП и палестинская идентичность Восточного Иерусалима». Иерусалим: будущее оспариваемого города . Издательство Нью-Йоркского университета. п. 189. ИСБН 978-0-8147-4754-4 .
- ^ Сигал, Джером М. (осень 1997 г.). «Переговоры по Иерусалиму» . Школа государственной политики Университета Мэриленда. Архивировано из оригинала 14 мая 2006 года . Проверено 25 февраля 2007 г.
- ^ Мёллер, Бьёрн (ноябрь 2002 г.). «Структура сотрудничества в израильско-палестинских отношениях: рабочий документ № 1» . Центр исследований европейской политики . Архивировано из оригинала 6 января 2004 года . Проверено 16 апреля 2007 г.
- ^ «Нет соглашения без палестинской столицы в Иерусалиме: Махмуд Аббас» . Таймс оф Индия . 10 июня 2010 года. Архивировано из оригинала 11 августа 2011 года . Проверено 9 сентября 2011 г.
- ^ Бард, Митчелл Г. Выживет ли Израиль?
- ^ Спорный суверенитет над городом Иерусалимом (22 июня 2015 г., The National Catholic Reporter). Архивировано 21 ноября 2018 г. в Wayback Machine. «Ни один президент США никогда официально не признавал суверенитет Израиля над какой-либо частью Иерусалима (...) Отказ признание Иерусалима израильской территорией является почти универсальной политикой западных стран».
- ^ Иерусалим: Оппозиция обсуждаемому заявлению Трампа об Израиле растет. Архивировано 6 августа 2019 года в Wayback Machine. «Суверенитет Израиля над Иерусалимом никогда не признавался на международном уровне».
- ^ Куда Иерусалим (Лапидот), стр. 17: «Израильский контроль над западным Иерусалимом с 1948 года был незаконным, и большинство государств не признали его суверенитет там»
- ^ Закон об Иерусалиме гласит, что «Иерусалим, целостный и единый, является столицей Израиля», и город служит резиденцией правительства, домом для резиденции президента, правительственных учреждений, верховного суда и парламента . Резолюция 478 Совета Безопасности ООН (20 августа 1980 г.; 14–0, США воздержались) объявила Закон об Иерусалиме «недействительным» и призвала государства-члены вывести свои дипломатические миссии из Иерусалима (см. Kellerman 1993 , стр. 140). Для получения дополнительной информации см. Статус Иерусалима .
- ^ «Резолюция 181 Генеральной Ассамблеи ООН рекомендовала создать международную зону, или corpus separatum, в Иерусалиме, которая будет находиться под управлением ООН в течение 10-летнего периода, после чего будет проведен референдум для определения ее будущего. Этот подход в равной степени применим к В значительной степени именно этот подход до сих пор определяет дипломатическое поведение государств и, таким образом, имеет большую силу в международном праве» (Сьюзен М. Акрам, Майкл Дампер , Майкл Линк, Иэн Скобби (ред.), Международное право и израильско-палестинский конфликт: основанный на правах подход к миру на Ближнем Востоке, Routledge, 2010, стр. 119).
- ^ Циппе Барроу (25 октября 2010 г.). «Законопроект о предоставлении Иерусалиму приоритетного статуса – Внутри Израиля – CBN News – Christian News 24–7» . CBN.com. Архивировано из оригинала 4 сентября 2014 года . Проверено 28 февраля 2014 г.
- ^ «Еврейское вторжение в мусульманский квартал: проект поселенцев по изменению горизонта Старого города Иерусалима». Архивировано 2 апреля 2017 г. в Wayback Machine, Дипломатическая служба Washington Post, 11 февраля 2007 г.; п. А01
- ^ Зейд, Майк (25 октября 2007 г.). «Стена Плача никогда не была частью храма» . «Джерузалем Пост» . Проверено 9 декабря 2012 года .
- ^ «Кемп-Дэвид: обмен» . Нью-Йоркское обозрение книг . 20 сентября 2001 г. Архивировано из оригинала 30 сентября 2009 г. Проверено 7 декабря 2012 г.
- ^ Jump up to: а б В освобождения Палестины принятой Организацией Декларации независимости Палестины, в 1988 году, Иерусалим объявлен столицей Государства Палестина. В 1997 году Законодательный совет Палестины Палестины принял Основной закон (ратифицированный председателем Ясиром Арафатом в 2002 году), определив город как таковой. Статья 3: «Иерусалим — столица Палестины».
См. Основной закон с поправками 2003 г., архивировано 11 февраля 2016 г. на Wayback Machine . Проверено 2 июня 2013 г.; Арафат подписывает закон о превращении Иерусалима в палестинскую столицу. Архивировано 30 сентября 2014 г. в Wayback Machine , People's Daily, опубликовано 6 октября 2002 г.; Арафат называет Иерусалим столицей. Архивировано 16 сентября 2015 года в Wayback Machine , BBC News, опубликовано 6 октября 2002 года. - ^ Моше Амирав (2009). Иерусалимский синдром: палестино-израильская битва за Священный город . Сассекс Академик Пресс. стр. 28–29. ISBN 978-1-84519-347-8 . Проверено 3 июня 2014 г.
- ^ Лазаров, Това (28 мая 2014 г.). Нетаньяху: «Иерусалим – это сердце нации. Мы никогда не разделим наше сердце». " . «Джерузалем Пост» . Архивировано из оригинала 14 июня 2018 года . Проверено 5 июня 2014 г.
- ↑ Опрос: 72% израильтян-евреев считают, что Дж'лем разделен. Архивировано 16 октября 2015 г. в Wayback Machine , Иерусалим Пост, 5 июня 2013 г.
- ^ Бенхорин, Ицхак (20 июня 1995 г.). «Опрос: Иерусалимские арабы предпочитают Израиль» . Инетньюс . Архивировано из оригинала 6 октября 2014 года . Проверено 7 декабря 2012 г.
- ^ Бен-Гурион, Давид (5 декабря 1949 г.). «Заявления премьер-министра Давида Бен-Гуриона по поводу переноса столицы Израиля в Иерусалим» . Кнессет. Архивировано из оригинала 23 мая 2019 года . Проверено 2 апреля 2007 г.
- ^ «Закон о переезде посольств в Иерусалим и Берлин 1998 года» . Библиотека Конгресса. 25 июня 1998 года. Архивировано из оригинала 3 сентября 2015 года . Проверено 12 февраля 2007 г.
- ^ Jump up to: а б «Кнессет провозглашает Иерусалим столицей Израиля; Мапам и Херут воздерживаются от голосования» . 25 января 1950 года. Архивировано из оригинала 3 октября 2020 года . Проверено 23 сентября 2020 г.
- ^ «Основной закон: Иерусалим, столица Израиля» . Министерство иностранных дел Израиля. 30 июля 1980 года. Архивировано из оригинала 8 февраля 2007 года . Проверено 2 апреля 2007 г.
- ^ «Резолюция 478 (1980)» (PDF) . Объединенные Нации. 1980. Архивировано из оригинала (PDF) 5 февраля 2009 года . Проверено 30 июля 2008 г.
- ^ Моше Амирав, Иерусалимский синдром: палестино-израильская битва за Священный город , Sussex University Press, 2009, стр. 27: «Летом 2006 года эти две страны также объявили о принятии новой политики, согласно которой они больше не будут признавать суверенитет Израиля в Иерусалиме, и перенесли свои посольства из города».
- ^ «Посольства и консульства в Израиле» . Домашняя страница Израиля по науке и технологиям. Архивировано из оригинала 24 июля 2017 года . Проверено 5 августа 2017 г.
- ^ «Посольство Гватемалы в Израиле открывается в Иерусалиме» . Ближневосточный монитор . 3 мая 2018 г. Архивировано из оригинала 13 мая 2018 г. . Проверено 12 мая 2018 г.
- ^ «Косово открывает посольство в Иерусалиме после того, как Израиль признает его независимость» . Хранитель . 14 марта 2021 г. Проверено 26 мая 2024 г.
- ^ «Папуа-Новая Гвинея открывает посольство Израиля в Западном Иерусалиме» . Аль Джазира. 5 сентября 2023 года. Архивировано из оригинала 20 марта 2024 года . Проверено 26 мая 2024 г.
- ^ «Закон о посольстве в Иерусалиме 1995 года» . Типография правительства США. 8 ноября 1995 года. Архивировано из оригинала 17 июня 2010 года . Проверено 15 февраля 2007 г.
- ^ «Провозглашение президента Дональда Трампа об Иерусалиме столицей Государства Израиль» . Белый дом. 6 декабря 2017 года. Архивировано из оригинала 6 декабря 2017 года . Проверено 6 декабря 2017 г.
- ^ «Трамп объявляет Иерусалим столицей Израиля» . News.com.au. 7 декабря 2017 года. Архивировано из оригинала 6 декабря 2017 года . Проверено 7 декабря 2017 г.
- ^ Арабы, Европа, ООН отвергают признание Трампом Иерусалима столицей Израиля. Архивировано 22 декабря 2017 года в Wayback Machine , Марк Генрих, Reuters.
- ↑ США вынуждены наложить вето на резолюцию ООН, осуждающую решение Трампа по Иерусалиму. Архивировано 10 мая 2018 г. в Wayback Machine , The Daily Telegraph.
- ^ «ООН отвергает Иерусалимскую декларацию Трампа» . Новости Би-би-си . 21 декабря 2017 г. Архивировано из оригинала 13 июня 2021 г. Проверено 20 июня 2018 г.
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- ^ Гладстон, Рик (21 декабря 2017 г.). «Бросая вызов Трампу, Генеральная Ассамблея ООН осуждает указ США по Иерусалиму» . Нью-Йорк Таймс . Архивировано из оригинала 3 января 2022 года.
- ^ «Официальный документ ООН» . Объединенные Нации. Архивировано из оригинала 22 декабря 2017 года . Проверено 21 декабря 2017 г.
- ^ Тапсфилд, Джеймс (18 февраля 2010 г.). «Израиль должен сотрудничать в борьбе с поддельными паспортами, — говорит Дэвид Милибэнд» . Независимый . Великобритания. Архивировано из оригинала 20 августа 2013 года . Проверено 11 сентября 2010 г.
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- ^ «От редакции Кровавый новый год в секторе Газа» . Джапан Таймс . 4 января 2009 года. Архивировано из оригинала 16 июля 2011 года . Проверено 11 сентября 2010 г.
- ↑ Руководство по стилю Times Online – J. Архивировано 21 сентября 2011 г. на Wayback Machine . «Иерусалим нельзя использовать как метоним или вариант Израиля. Он не признан на международном уровне столицей Израиля, и его статус является одним из центральных споров в истории Израиля. Средний Восток."
- ^ «Jpost Exclusive: Москва неожиданно заявляет, что западный Иерусалим является столицей Израиля – Новости Израиля» . «Джерузалем Пост» . 6 апреля 2017 года. Архивировано из оригинала 23 сентября 2017 года . Проверено 23 сентября 2017 г.
- ^ «Россия могла бы признать Западный Иерусалим столицей Израиля» . ПНН. 8 апреля 2017 года. Архивировано из оригинала 9 апреля 2017 года . Проверено 9 апреля 2017 г.
- ↑ Заявление Министерства иностранных дел относительно палестино-израильского урегулирования (6 апреля 2017 г.). Архивировано 4 января 2020 г. на Wayback Machine : «Мы подтверждаем нашу приверженность одобренным ООН принципам палестино-израильского урегулирования, которые включают статус Восточного Иерусалима как столицы. будущего палестинского государства. В то же время мы должны заявить, что в этом контексте мы рассматриваем Западный Иерусалим как столицу Израиля».
- ^ «Австралия признает западный Иерусалим столицей Израиля» . Новости CBS . 15 декабря 2018 года. Архивировано из оригинала 16 декабря 2018 года . Проверено 16 декабря 2018 г.
- ^ «Австралия заявляет, что прекратит признание Иерусалима столицей Израиля» . ЭНЕРГЕТИЧЕСКИЙ ЯДЕРНЫЙ РЕАКТОР . 17 октября 2022 года. Архивировано из оригинала 18 октября 2022 года . Проверено 18 октября 2022 г.
- ^ «Английский шлюз на сайт Кнессета» . Архивировано из оригинала 2 мая 2019 года . Проверено 18 мая 2007 г.
- ^ «Государство Израиль: судебная власть» . Архивировано из оригинала 28 апреля 2019 года . Проверено 18 мая 2007 г.
- ^ «Население» . Мир сейчас . Архивировано из оригинала 11 июня 2022 года . Проверено 1 июня 2022 г.
- ^ Робертс, Адам (1990). «Длительная военная оккупация: территории, оккупированные Израилем с 1967 года» (PDF) . Американский журнал международного права . 84 (1): 85–86. дои : 10.2307/2203016 . JSTOR 2203016 . S2CID 145514740 . Архивировано из оригинала (PDF) 15 февраля 2020 года.
Международное сообщество критически оценило как депортации, так и поселения как противоречащие международному праву. Резолюции Генеральной Ассамблеи осуждают депортации, начиная с 1969 года, и в последние годы подавляющее большинство делало это. Аналогичным образом, они постоянно осуждали создание поселений, и подавляющее большинство делало это на протяжении всего периода (с конца 1976 года) быстрого увеличения их числа. Совет Безопасности также критиковал депортации и поселения; и другие органы рассматривают их как препятствие на пути к миру и незаконные согласно международному праву... Хотя Восточный Иерусалим и Голанские высоты были переданы непосредственно под израильское законодательство, в результате действий, которые равносильны аннексии, обе эти территории продолжают рассматриваться как международным сообществом как оккупированные, и их статус с точки зрения применимости международных правил во многом идентичен статусу Западного Берега и Газы.
- ^ «Иерусалим» . ООП-Департамент по переговорам (NAD) . Архивировано из оригинала 18 апреля 2016 года . Проверено 20 мая 2013 г.
- ^ «Столица Палестины: граница 1967 года в Иерусалиме и незаконная политика Израиля на местах» (PDF) . Восточный Иерусалим сегодня . ООП-Департамент по переговорам (NAD). Август 2013. с. 5. Архивировано из оригинала (PDF) 25 августа 2013 года . Проверено 5 февраля 2016 г.
- ↑ Медведев подтверждает советское признание Палестины (Ynet News, 18 января 2011 г.). Архивировано 26 июля 2013 г. на Wayback Machine . «Президент России говорит, что Москва не меняла свою позицию с 1988 года, когда она «признала независимое палестинское государство со столицей в восточном Иерусалиме»»
- ^ Китай поддерживает заявку Палестины в ООН (Синьхуа, 8 сентября 2011 г.). Архивировано 16 мая 2013 г. в Wayback Machine . «Китай признает Палестину как страну со столицей в Восточном Иерусалиме и обладающую полным суверенитетом и независимостью в соответствии с границами, согласованными в 1967 году». по словам Цзяна»
- ^ «Резолюция 58/292. Статус оккупированной палестинской территории, включая Восточный Иерусалим» . Объединенные Нации . 17 мая 2004 г. Архивировано из оригинала 6 августа 2012 г.
- ^ Jump up to: а б «Иерусалимский квартал Шейх-Джарра, где когда-то располагались арабские консульства» . www.aa.com.tr. Архивировано из оригинала 25 февраля 2024 года . Проверено 25 февраля 2024 г.
- ^ EmbassyPages.com: Посольства и консульства в Иерусалиме
- ^ «Силы ЦАХАЛа берут под свой контроль комплекс Губернаторского дома в Абу-Дисе | Министерство иностранных дел» . Архивировано из оригинала 27 февраля 2024 года . Проверено 27 февраля 2024 г.
- ^ «Архивная копия» . Архивировано из оригинала 27 февраля 2024 года . Проверено 27 февраля 2024 г.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: архивная копия в заголовке ( ссылка ) - ^ «Учреждения ПА в Абу-Дисе отрезаны от Восточного Иерусалима» . Гаарец . Проверено 25 февраля 2024 г.
- ^ «Израильские власти не знали о границах города Иерусалима, когда закрывали Палестинское картографическое бюро» . Гаарец . Проверено 25 февраля 2024 г.
- ^ Jump up to: а б Сидор, Пегги (15 марта 2007 г.). «Коридоры власти: история двух советов» . «Джерузалем Пост» . Архивировано из оригинала 16 июля 2011 года . Проверено 28 марта 2007 г.
- ^ Шнайдер, Таль (14 ноября 2018 г.). «Моше Лион избран мэром Иерусалима, и это драматическое завершение» . Глобусы . Архивировано из оригинала 16 декабря 2018 года . Проверено 15 декабря 2018 г.
- ^ Кокер, Маргарет (11 ноября 2006 г.). «Иерусалим становится полем битвы за права геев и религиозные убеждения» . Газеты Кокса. Архивировано из оригинала 23 декабря 2007 года . Проверено 28 марта 2007 г.
- ^ «Площадь Сафра – Ратуша» . Муниципалитет Иерусалима. Архивировано из оригинала 31 октября 2002 года . Проверено 24 апреля 2007 г.
- ^ «Уникальный статус иерусалимского пригорода Вади Хумус» . Иерусалимский центр по связям с общественностью . Архивировано из оригинала 20 февраля 2024 года . Проверено 1 марта 2024 г.
- ^ Профиль города Ар-Рам. Архивировано 16 мая 2024 г. в Wayback Machine , ARIJ, 2012, стр. 18-19.
- ^ Профиль города Бейт-Ханина. Архивировано 22 ноября 2023 г. в Wayback Machine , ARIJ, 2013, стр. 16
- ^ «Профиль местности Араб-эль-Джахалин. Архивировано 4 мая 2023 г. в Wayback Machine , ARIJ, стр. 17
- ^ Рэгсон, Адам. «Ничейная земля Иерусалима: хаос и анархия в районе Кафр-Акаба» . Таймс Израиля . Архивировано из оригинала 1 марта 2024 года . Проверено 1 марта 2024 г.
- ^ Кабрера, Энрике; Хорхе Гарсия-Серра (1998). Планирование борьбы с засухой в системах водоснабжения . Спрингер. п. 304 . ISBN 978-0-7923-5294-5 .
Старый город Иерусалима (760 м) на центральных холмах.
- ^ Jump up to: а б Бергсон, Сэм (15 мая 2006 г.). «География» . Корнелльский университет. Архивировано из оригинала 14 июля 2007 года . Проверено 9 февраля 2007 г.
- ^ Уолворд, Джон; Закари Дж. Хейс; Кларк Х. Пиннок; Уильям Крокетт; Стэнли Н. Гандри (1996). «Метафорический взгляд». Четыре взгляда на ад . Зондерван. п. 58. ИСБН 978-0-310-21268-3 .
- ^ Мастерман, EWG (февраль 1902 г.). «Водоснабжение Иерусалима древнее и современное» . Библейский мир . 19 (2). Издательство Чикагского университета : 87–112. дои : 10.1086/472951 . JSTOR 3137039 .
- ^ Розен-Цви, Иссахар (2004). Серьезное отношение к космосу: право, космос и общество в современном Израиле . Издательство Эшгейт. п. 37. ИСБН 978-0-7546-2351-9 .
Так, например, расстояние между четырьмя крупными метрополиями составляет — 39 миль.
- ^ Федерман, Йозеф (18 августа 2004 г.). «Снова разгораются дебаты по поводу свитков Мертвого моря» . Новости Эн-Би-Си. Ассошиэйтед Пресс. Архивировано из оригинала 17 октября 2014 года . Проверено 9 февраля 2007 г.
- ^ "Введение" . Археологическая экспедиция Телль-эс-Сафи/Гат . Университет Бар-Илан. Архивировано из оригинала 5 апреля 2005 года . Проверено 24 апреля 2007 г. (Изображение находится здесь. Архивная копия в Библиотеке Конгресса (31 июля 2008 г.).)
- ^ «Карта Израиля» . Взгляните на Израиль. Архивировано из оригинала 27 апреля 2007 года . Проверено 25 апреля 2007 г. (См. карту 9 Иерусалима)
- ^ « Еще одно препятствие на пути к миру – новый израильский квартал на землях города Иерусалим» . Институт прикладных исследований – Иерусалим. 10 марта 2007 г. Архивировано из оригинала 31 января 2008 г. Проверено 24 апреля 2007 г. )
- ^ «Среднее ежедневное солнечное сияние каждого месяца в Иерусалиме, Израиль» . Погодный канал. Архивировано из оригинала 14 ноября 2007 года . Проверено 7 февраля 2007 г.
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- ^ Рори Кесс (16 сентября 2007 г.). «Самое сильное загрязнение озона в Бейт-Шемеше, Гуш-Эционе» . «Джерузалем Пост» . Архивировано из оригинала 24 июня 2011 года . Проверено 23 октября 2007 г.
- ^ «Долгосрочная климатическая информация для Израиля» . Август 2016 г. Архивировано из оригинала 14 сентября 2010 г. (на иврите).
- ^ «Рекордные данные в Израиле» . Архивировано из оригинала 24 января 2010 г. (на иврите).
- ^ «Климатические нормы ВМО для Иерусалима, 1991–2020 гг.» . Национальное управление океанических и атмосферных исследований . Архивировано из оригинала 12 ноября 2023 года . Проверено 25 октября 2023 г.
- ^ «Нормальные климатические нормы Иерусалима 1961–1990» . Национальное управление океанических и атмосферных исследований . Архивировано из оригинала 20 ноября 2018 года . Проверено 26 апреля 2017 г. .
- ^ Теллер, Мэтью (2022). Девять кварталов Иерусалима: новая биография Старого города . Профильные книги . п. Глава 1. ISBN 978-1-78283-904-0 . Архивировано из оригинала 9 июня 2023 года . Проверено 30 мая 2023 г.
Но, возможно, это были не Олдрич и Саймондс. Под рамкой карты, напечатанной курсивом, одна строка отмечает, что «Письмо» было добавлено «Преподобным» . Г. Уильямс » и «Преподобный». Роберт Уиллис... Некоторые источники предполагают, что [Уильямс] прибыл раньше [Майкла] Александра в 1841 году. Если да, то встречался ли он с Олдричем и Саймондсом? Мы не знаем. Но Уильямс стал их защитником, защищая их, когда всплыла неточность в Хараме, а затем опубликовав их работу. Исследование, проведенное двумя королевскими инженерами, не предназначалось для коммерческого распространения (первоначально Олдрич был отправлен в Сирию в рамках «секретной службы»), и прошло несколько лет, прежде чем их военный план Иерусалима привлек внимание общественности, впервые опубликованный в 1845 году их старшего офицера Олдерсона в простой форме, без большинства подробностей и обозначений, а затем полностью в 1849 году во втором издании книги Уильямса «Святой город». Изобрели ли Олдрич и/или Саймондс идею четырех кварталов в Иерусалиме? Возможно, но они были военными геодезистами, а не учёными. Кажется более вероятным, что они потратили свое очень короткое пребывание на составление полезного плана улиц для своих старших офицеров, не обязательно вдаваясь в подробности имен и мест. Публикация 1845 года, лишенная названий улиц, названий кварталов и других деталей, предполагает, что… Усугубляя свои анахронизмы и, возможно, стремясь воспроизвести римский городской дизайн в этом новом контексте, Уильямс пишет, как две главные улицы, север-юг и восток, на западе «разделить Иерусалим на четыре четверти». Затем решающая строка: «Подразделения улиц и кварталов многочисленны, но неважны». Историки, я надеюсь, смогут более глубоко углубиться в работу Уильямса, но для меня этого достаточно. На протяжении почти двухсот лет практически весь мир воспринимал неосведомленные и пренебрежительные суждения скучного миссионера из Старого Итона как отражение непреходящего факта социального устройства Иерусалима. Это позорно... В связи с возросшим авторитетом Британии в Палестине после 1840 года и ростом интереса к библейской археологии, который через несколько десятилетий стал навязчивой идеей, для протестантских миссионеров было жизненно важно установить границы в Иерусалиме... Уильямс распространял свои идеи повсюду. Эрнст Густав Шульц , приехавший в Иерусалим в 1842 году в качестве вице-консула Пруссии, пишет в своей книге 1845 года «Иерусалим: Eine Vorlesung » («Лекция»): «С искренней благодарностью я должен отметить, что по прибытии в Иерусалим г-н Уильямс ... охотно сообщил мне о важной информации о топографии [Иерусалима], которую он [и] другой молодой англиканский священнослужитель, г-н Роландс, обнаружил». Далее следуют строки: «Давайте теперь разделим город на кварталы» и, после упоминания евреев и христиан: «Вся остальная часть города — это мусульманский квартал». В комплект была включена карта , нарисованная Генрихом Кипертом , на которой были обозначены четыре квартала, отражающие обращение Уильямса в Святом городе .
- ^ Усиэль Оскар Шмельц, в Османской Палестине, 1800–1914: исследования по экономической и социальной истории, Гад Г. Гилбар, Архив Брилла, 1990 г. Османская Палестина 1800–1940, в Google Книгах
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- ^ Эллисон Ходжкинс, «Иудаизация Иерусалима - политика Израиля с 1967 года»; Публикация PASSIA № 101, декабрь 1996 г. (на английском языке, стр. 88).
- ^ Jump up to: а б «Ограничения на передвижение и доступ на Западном Берегу: неопределенность и неэффективность». Архивировано 10 апреля 2010 г. в Wayback Machine ; Техническая группа Всемирного банка, 9 мая 2007 г.
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- ^ Эстер Зандберг. «Архитектурный заговор молчания». Архивировано 6 мая 2005 г. в Wayback Machine ; "Гаарец", 24 февраля 2007 г.
- ^ Гуинн, Дэвид Э. (2006). Защита святых мест Иерусалима: стратегия переговоров о священном мире (1-е изд.). Издательство Кембриджского университета. п. 142 . ISBN 978-0-521-86662-0 .
- ^ «Притязания мусульман на Иерусалим» , Nothing Abides , Routledge, стр. 11–38, 5 июля 2017 г., doi : 10.4324/9781315125374-3 , ISBN 978-1-315-12537-4 , получено 5 февраля 2022 г.
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- ^ Ривка, Гонен (2003). Оспариваемая святость: еврейские, мусульманские и христианские взгляды на Храмовую гору в Иерусалиме . Джерси-Сити, Нью-Джерси: Издательство KTAV, Inc. 4. ISBN 978-0-88125-798-4 . OCLC 1148595286 .
Для евреев Храмовая гора — самое святое место на Земле, место, где Бог явился царю Давиду и где находились два еврейских храма — Храм Соломона и Второй Храм.
- ^ Маршалл Дж., Брегер; Ахимейр, Ора (2002). Иерусалим: город и его будущее . Издательство Сиракузского университета. п. 296. ИСБН 978-0-8156-2912-2 . OCLC 48940385 .
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- ^ Гольдберг, Моник Сюскинд. «Синагоги» . Спросите раввина . Шехтера Институт иудаики. Архивировано из оригинала 31 января 2008 года . Проверено 10 марта 2007 г.
- ^ Jump up to: а б Сигал, Бенджамин Дж. (1987). Возвращение: Земля Израиля как фокус еврейской истории . Иерусалим, Израиль: Департамент образования и культуры Всемирной сионистской организации. п. 124. Архивировано из оригинала 23 декабря 2005 года . Проверено 10 марта 2007 г.
- ↑ Еврейское предписание молиться в сторону Иерусалима содержится в «Орах Хаим» разделе Шулхан Аруха (94:1) — «Когда кто-то встает, чтобы помолиться где-нибудь в Диаспоре, он должен повернуться лицом к Земле Израиля, направляясь также в сторону Иерусалима, Храм и Святая Святых».
- ^ Беклс Уилсон, Рэйчел (2013). Ориентализм и музыкальная миссия: Палестина и Запад . Издательство Кембриджского университета. п. 146. ИСБН 978-1-107-03656-7 .
- ↑ Из Библии в версии короля Иакова : «И когда исполнились дни ее очищения по закону Моисееву, принесли [Иисуса] в Иерусалим, чтобы представить Его Господу»; ( Луки 2:22)
- ↑ Из Библии в версии короля Иакова : «И пришли в Иерусалим. И вошел Иисус в храм, и начал выгонять продающих и покупающих в храме, и опрокидывал столы меновщиков и скамейки продающие голубей»; ( Марка 11:15)
- ^ Боас, Адриан Дж. (2001). «Физические останки крестоносца Иерусалима». Иерусалим во времена крестовых походов . Рутледж. п. 112 . ISBN 978-0-415-23000-1 .
Интересные, хотя и не достоверные изображения церкви на круглых картах Иерусалима показывают два отдельных здания на горе Сион: церковь Святой Марии и Горница (Часовня Тайной Вечери) выглядят как отдельные здания.
- ^ Эндо, Сюсаку (1999). Ричард А. Шухерт (ред.). Жизнь Иисуса . Паулист Пресс. п. 116. ИСБН 978-0-8091-2319-3 .
- ^ Из версии Библии короля Иакова : «Этот заголовок тогда читали многие евреи: ибо место, где Иисус был распят, было недалеко от города: и оно было написано на иврите, греческом и латыни». ( Иоанна 19:20)
- ^ Jump up to: а б Стамп, Кейт В. (1993). «Где была Голгофа?» . Всемирная Церковь Божия. Архивировано из оригинала 2 апреля 2007 года . Проверено 11 марта 2007 г.
- ^ Рэй, Стивен К. (2002). Евангелие от Иоанна: Руководство по изучению Библии и комментарии для отдельных лиц и групп . Сан-Франциско, Калифорния: Игнатиус Пресс. п. 340. ИСБН 978-0-89870-821-9 .
- ^ О'Рейли, Шон; Джеймс О'Рейли (30 ноября 2000 г.). PilgrFile: Приключения духа (1-е изд.). Рассказы путешественников. п. 14 . ISBN 978-1-885211-56-9 .
По общему мнению, Храм Гроба Господня отмечает холм, называемый Голгофой, и что место Распятия и последние пять станций Крестного пути расположены под его большими черными куполами.
- ^ Холт, Эндрю (2019). Мир крестовых походов: Энциклопедия повседневной жизни [2 тома] . АВС-КЛИО. п. 57. ИСБН 978-1-4408-5462-0 .
находился в самой важной церкви христианского мира – Храме Гроба Господня.
- ^ Кордесман, Энтони Х. (2005). «Проблемы окончательного урегулирования: асимметричные ценности и асимметричная война». Израильско-палестинская война: эскалация в никуда . Praeger Security International. п. 62. ИСБН 978-0-275-98758-9 .
- ^ Коран 2:142.
- ^ Питерс, Фрэнсис Э. (2003). «Мухаммед Пророк Божий» . Монотеисты: Народ Божий . Издательство Принстонского университета. стр. 95–6 . ISBN 978-0-691-11460-6 .
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- ^ Сахих аль-Бухари 7517.
- ↑ Из Юсуфом Али английского перевода Корана Абдуллой : «Слава (Аллаху), Который взял Своего слугу в ночное путешествие от Священной мечети к самой дальней мечети, чьи окрестности Мы благословили, - чтобы Мы могли бы показать ему некоторые из Наших знамений, ибо Он — Тот, Кто слышит и видит (все)». ( 17 :1)
- ^ Коран 17:1
- ^ Энциклопедия ислама . Том. 7 (Новое издание, 2006 г.). Брилл. 2006. стр. 97–105.
- ^ Колби, Фредерик С. (6 августа 2008 г.). Рассказ о ночном путешествии Мухаммеда: прослеживание развития дискурса о вознесении Ибн Аббаса . СУНИ Пресс. п. 15. ISBN 978-0-7914-7788-5 .
Из самых ранних дошедших до нас мусульманских текстов становится ясно, что группа мусульман с самого начала интерпретировала «самое дальнее место молитвы» (аль-масджид аль-акса) как город Иерусалим в целом и его храм Ирода/Соломона в частности. .. В конце концов, вокруг идеи, что путешествие Мухаммеда действительно привело его в Иерусалим, сформировался общий консенсус.
- ^ «Заслуги помощников в Медине (Ансар) – Хадис Сахих Бухари» . Haditsbukharionline.blogspot.ca. Архивировано из оригинала 1 января 2016 года . Проверено 7 декабря 2012 г.
- ^ Хьюз, Аарон В. (2014). Теоретизирование ислама: дисциплинарная деконструкция и реконструкция . Религия в культуре. Тейлор и Фрэнсис. п. 45. ИСБН 978-1-317-54594-1 . Архивировано из оригинала 19 июля 2023 года . Проверено 15 июля 2022 г.
Хотя более поздние комментаторы спорили о том, было ли это путешествие физическим или происходило на внутреннем уровне, оно сыграло решающую роль в установлении пророческого авторитета Мухаммеда. В первой части этого путешествия, называемого «исра», он отправился от Каабы в Мекке к «самой дальней мечети» (аль-Масджид аль-Акса), отождествляемой с Храмовой горой в Иерусалиме: мечети Аль-Акса, которая стоит там сегодня, в конечном итоге получил свое название от этого более крупного участка, на котором он был построен.
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Два самых популярных зрелищных вида спорта в Израиле — футбол и баскетбол.
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- ^ «Города-побратимы» . fescity.com . Город Фес. 8 января 2019 г. Архивировано из оригинала 16 ноября 2020 г. . Проверено 29 мая 2020 г.
- ^ «Город Ужда является побратимом Аль-Кодса» . 2m.ma (на французском языке). 17 июля 2018 года. Архивировано из оригинала 24 октября 2020 года . Проверено 22 октября 2020 г.
- ^ «Города-побратимы Куско» . aatccusco.com (на испанском языке). Ассоциация туристических агентств Куско. Архивировано из оригинала 29 марта 2022 года . Проверено 1 ноября 2023 г.
- ^ «Соглашения городов-побратимов» . jerseycitynj.gov . Джерси-Сити. Архивировано из оригинала 2 мая 2021 года . Проверено 1 ноября 2023 г.
- ^ «Мэр Адамс подписывает соглашение о городе-побратиме между Нью-Йорком и Афинами, Греция» . Офис мэра города Нью-Йорка. 1 декабря 2022 года. Архивировано из оригинала 5 марта 2023 года . Проверено 1 ноября 2023 г.
Библиография
- Гилберт, Мартин (1978). Иерусалим: Иллюстрированный исторический атлас . Нью-Йорк: Издательство Macmillan.
- Келлерман, Аарон (1993). Общество и поселения: еврейская земля Израиля в двадцатом веке . Издательство Государственного университета Нью-Йорка. ISBN 978-0-7914-1295-4 .
Дальнейшее чтение
- Чешин, Амир С.; Билл Хатман и Ави Меламед (1999). Отдельный и неравный: внутренняя история израильского правления в Восточном Иерусалиме . Издательство Гарвардского университета . ISBN 978-0-674-80136-3 .
- Клайн, Эрик (2004). Осажденный Иерусалим: от древнего Ханаана до современного Израиля . Анн-Арбор: Издательство Мичиганского университета. ISBN 978-0-472-11313-2 .
- Коллинз, Ларри, и Ла Пьер, Доминик (1988). О Иерусалим! . Нью-Йорк: Саймон и Шустер ISBN 978-0-671-66241-7 .
- Голд, Доре (2007) Борьба за Иерусалим: радикальный ислам, Запад и будущее Священного города . Международная издательская компания JM, Ltd. ISBN 978-1-59698-029-7 .
- Кёхлер, Ганс (1981) Правовые аспекты палестинской проблемы с особым вниманием к вопросу об Иерусалиме, Вена: Браумюллер ISBN 978-3-7003-0278-0 .
- «Святые города: Иерусалим» , производство Danae Film Production, распространение осуществляется HDH Communications; 2006 г.
- Вассерштейн, Бернард (2002) Разделенный Иерусалим: борьба за священный город Нью-Хейвен и Лондон: издательство Йельского университета. ISBN 978-0-300-09730-6 .
- « Ключи от Иерусалима: краткий обзор. Архивировано 22 декабря 2010 г. в Wayback Machine », Королевский центр исламских стратегических исследований, Амман, Иордания, 2010 г.
- Монтефиоре, Саймон Себаг (2011) Иерусалим: Биография , Лондон: Вайденфельд и Николсон, ISBN 978-0-297-85265-0 .
- Янг, Робб А. (2012) Езекия в истории и традициях Brill Global Oriental Hotei Publishing, Нидерланды.
- Кляйн, Константин М.: Винанд, Йоханнес (2022) (ред.): Город Цезаря, Город Божий: Константинополь и Иерусалим в поздней античности. Де Грюйтер, Берлин 2022, ISBN 978-3-11-071720-4 . дои : 10.1515/9783110718447 .
- Джон Д. Хослер, «Иерусалимский водопад: семь веков войны и мира» (Лондон и Нью-Хейвен: издательство Йельского университета, 2022), ISBN 978-0-300-25514-0
Внешние ссылки
Определения из Викисловаря 
СМИ из Commons 
Новости из Викиновостей 
Цитаты из Wikiquote 
Тексты из Wikisource 
Учебники из Wikibooks 
Ресурсы из Викиверситета 
Туристическая информация от Wikivoyage
- Официальный сайт муниципалитета Иерусалима
- Что делает Иерусалим таким святым? Архивировано 31 мая 2018 года на Wayback Machine BBC.
- Статус Иерусалима. Архивировано 26 мая 2023 года в Wayback Machine . Документ ООН, касающийся спора по поводу города
- Виртуальная библиотека Иерусалима , совместный проект Университета Аль-Кудс и Еврейского университета Иерусалима.
- Официальный сайт. Архивировано 6 декабря 2017 года в Wayback Machine Еврейского университета Иерусалима , ведущего высшего учебного заведения города.
- Официальный сайт. Архивировано 6 декабря 2017 года в Wayback Machine Университета Аль-Кудс , единственного палестинского университета в Иерусалиме.
Географические данные, относящиеся к Иерусалиму, на OpenStreetMap. - Иерусалим в Керли
- Окрестности Иерусалима
- Иерусалим
- Древние еврейские места паломничества
- Древние еврейские поселения Иудеи
- Арабские христианские общины в Израиле
- Столицы Азии
- Столицы Государства Палестина
- Христианские святые места
- места христианского паломничества
- Города в Израиле
- Города в Иерусалимском округе
- Города Государства Палестина
- Спорные территории в Азии
- Еврейские библейские города
- Священные города
- Исламские святые места
- Иерусалимская провинция
- еврейские святые места
- Земля Израиля
- Смешанные израильские общины
- Новозаветные города
- Ортодоксальные еврейские общины
- Населенные пункты, основанные в V тысячелетии до н.э.
- Территориальные споры Израиля
- Города Торы
- Священные города иудаизма
- Расположение букв Амарны