Библия

Isaiah	Yeshayahu
Jeremiah	Yirmeyahu
Ezekiel	Yekhezqel

Joshua	Yehoshua
Judges	Shofetim
Samuel	Shemuel
Kings	Melakhim

Genesis	Bereshit
Exodus	Shemot
Leviticus	Wayiqra
Numbers	Bemidbar
Deuteronomy	Devarim

Библия ( от греческого койне τὰ βιβλία , tà biblía , «книги») — собрание религиозных текстов или писаний, некоторые, все или варианты которых считаются священными в христианстве , иудаизме , самаритянстве , исламе , Вера Бахаи и другие авраамические религии . Библия представляет собой антологию (сборник текстов различной формы), первоначально написанную на иврите , арамейском и греческом койне . Тексты включают инструкции, рассказы, стихи, пророчества и другие жанры. Собрание материалов, которые принимаются как часть Библии определенной религиозной традицией или сообществом, называется библейским каноном . Верующие в Библию обычно считают ее продуктом божественного вдохновения , но то, как они понимают, что это значит, и интерпретируют текст по-разному.

Религиозные тексты собирались различными религиозными общинами в различные официальные сборники. Самая ранняя из них содержала первые пять книг Библии, называемых Торой на иврите и Пятикнижием (что означает пять книг ) на греческом. Вторая по возрасту часть представляла собой сборник повествовательных историй и пророчеств ( Невиим ). Третий сборник ( Ктувим ) содержит псалмы, пословицы и повествовательные истории. « Танах » — это альтернативный термин для еврейской Библии, состоящий из первых букв трех частей еврейских писаний: Торы («Учение»), Невиим («Пророки») и Кетувим («Писания»). ). Масоретский текст — это средневековая версия Танаха на иврите и арамейском языке, которая в современном раввинистическом иудаизме считается авторитетным текстом еврейской Библии . Септуагинта — это перевод Танаха на греческий койне третьего и второго веков до нашей эры; она во многом совпадает с еврейской Библией.

Христианство возникло как результат иудаизма Второго Храма , использовавшего Септуагинту в качестве основы Ветхого Завета . продолжала Ранняя Церковь еврейскую традицию написания и включения в нее того, что она считала вдохновенными и авторитетными религиозными книгами. Евангелия и , послания Павла другие тексты быстро вошли в Новый Завет .

Библия, общий объем продаж которой оценивается в более чем пять миллиардов экземпляров, является самым продаваемым изданием всех времен. Он оказал глубокое влияние как на западную культуру и историю, так и на культуры всего мира. Изучение его посредством библейской критики также косвенно повлияло на культуру и историю. Библия в настоящее время переведена или переводится примерно на половину языков мира.

Этимология

Термин «Библия» может относиться к еврейской Библии или христианской Библии, которая содержит как Ветхий , так и Новый Завет . ^{[ 1 ]}

Английское слово «Библия» происходит от греческого койне : τὰ βιβλια , латинизированного: ta biblia , что означает «книги» (единственное число βιβλιον , biblion ). ^{[ 2 ]} Само слово βιβλίον имело буквальное значение « свиток » и стало использоваться как обычное слово для обозначения «книги». ^{[ 3 ]} Это уменьшительное от βύβλος byblos , «египетский папирус», возможно, названный так от названия финикийского морского порта Библос (также известного как Гевал), откуда египетский папирус был экспортирован в Грецию. ^{[ 4 ]}

Греческое слово ta biblia («книги») было «выражением, которое евреи-эллинисты использовали для описания своих священных книг». ^{[ 5 ]} Библеист Ф. Ф. Брюс отмечает, что Иоанн Златоуст , по-видимому, является первым писателем (в своих «Проповедях на Матфея» , произнесенных между 386 и 388 годами н. э.), который использовал греческую фразу ta biblia («книги») для описания как Ветхого, так и Нового Заветов. вместе. ^{[ 6 ]}

Латинское biblea Sacra «священные книги» переводится с греческого τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια ( от Библии здесь «священные книги»). ^{[ 7 ]} Средневековая латинская biblia — сокращение от biblia Sacra «священная книга». Постепенно оно стало рассматриваться как существительное женского рода в единственном числе ( biblia , gen. bibliae ) в средневековой латыни, и поэтому это слово было заимствовано в единственном числе в разговорный язык Западной Европы. ^{[ 8 ]}

Развитие и история

Библия — это не одна книга; это собрание книг, сложное развитие которых до конца не изучено. Самые старые книги начинались как песни и рассказы, устно передаваемые из поколения в поколение. Ученые двадцать первого века находятся только на начальных этапах изучения «интерфейса между письмом, исполнением, запоминанием и слуховым измерением» текстов. Текущие данные свидетельствуют о том, что письмо и устная речь не были разделены настолько, насколько древнее письмо изучалось в контексте коллективного устного исполнения. ^{[ 9 ]} Библия была написана и составлена многими людьми , принадлежащими к самым разным культурам и происхождению, которые, по мнению многих ученых, по большей части неизвестны. ^{[ 10 ]}

Британский библеист Джон К. Ричес писал: ^{[ 11 ]}

[T]Библейские тексты создавались в течение периода, когда условия жизни авторов – политические, культурные, экономические и экологические – сильно различались. Есть тексты, отражающие кочевое существование, тексты людей с устоявшейся монархией и храмовым культом, тексты из изгнания, тексты, рожденные в результате жестокого притеснения со стороны иностранных правителей, куртуазные тексты, тексты странствующих харизматических проповедников, тексты тех, кто отдает себя манеры утонченных эллинистических писателей. Это временной промежуток, охватывающий сочинения Гомера , Платона , Аристотеля , Фукидида , Софокла , Цезаря , Цицерона и Катулла . Это период расцвета и падения Ассирийской империи (двенадцатый-седьмой века) и Персидской империи (шестой-четвертый века), походы Александра (336-326), возвышение Рима и его господство над Средиземноморье ( 70 (четвертый век до основания принципата , 27 г. до н. э. ), разрушение Иерусалимского храма г. н. э.) и распространение римского правления на части Шотландия (84 г. н.э.).

Книги Библии изначально писались и переписывались вручную на свитках папируса . ^{[ 12 ]} Оригиналов не сохранилось. Поэтому возраст первоначального состава текстов трудно определить и он активно обсуждается. Используя комбинированный лингвистический и историографический подход, Хендель и Йостен датируют самые древние части еврейской Библии (Песнь Деворы в книге Судей 5 и историю Самсона в книге Судей 16 и 1 Царств) тем, что они были написаны в домонархический ранний железный век ( ок. . 1200 г. до н.э. ). ^{[ 13 ]} Свитки Мертвого моря , обнаруженные в пещерах Кумрана в 1947 году, представляют собой копии, которые можно датировать периодом между 250 г. до н.э. и 100 г. н.э. Это самые старые из существующих копий книг еврейской Библии любой длины, не являющиеся фрагментами. ^{[ 14 ]}

Самые ранние рукописи, вероятно, были написаны на палеоиврите , своего рода клинописной пиктограмме, похожей на другие пиктограммы того же периода. ^{[ 15 ]} Изгнание в Вавилон, скорее всего, привело к переходу на квадратное письмо (арамейское) в пятом-третьем веках до нашей эры. ^{[ 16 ]} Со времен свитков Мертвого моря Еврейская Библия писалась с пробелами между словами, чтобы облегчить чтение. ^{[ 17 ]} К восьмому веку нашей эры масореты добавили знаки гласных. ^{[ 18 ]} Левиты или писцы поддерживали тексты, и некоторые тексты всегда считались более авторитетными, чем другие. ^{[ 19 ]} Переписчики сохраняли и изменяли тексты, меняя шрифт и обновляя архаичные формы, а также внося исправления. Эти еврейские тексты были скопированы с большой тщательностью. ^{[ 20 ]}

Считавшиеся писаниями ( священными , авторитетными религиозными текстами), книги были составлены различными религиозными общинами в различные библейские каноны (официальные сборники писаний). ^{[ 21 ]} Самый ранний сборник, содержащий первые пять книг Библии и названный Торой (что означает «закон», «наставление» или «учение») или Пятикнижием («пять книг»), был принят в качестве еврейского канона в пятом веке до нашей эры. . Второй сборник повествовательных историй и пророчеств, названный Невиим ( «пророки»), был канонизирован в третьем веке до нашей эры. Третий сборник, названный « Кетувим» («Писания»), содержащий псалмы, пословицы и повествовательные истории, был канонизирован где-то между вторым веком до нашей эры и вторым веком нашей эры. ^{[ 22 ]} Эти три сборника были написаны в основном на библейском иврите , с некоторыми частями на арамейском языке , которые вместе образуют еврейскую Библию или «ТаНаХ» ( сокращение от «Тора», «Невиим» и «Кетувим»). ^{[ 23 ]}

Еврейская Библия

Существуют три основные исторические версии еврейской Библии : Септуагинта , Масоретский текст и Самаритянское Пятикнижие (которое содержит только первые пять книг). Они родственны, но не имеют одинаковых путей развития. Септуагинта, или LXX, представляет собой перевод еврейских писаний и некоторых связанных с ним текстов на греческий койне, который, как полагают, был выполнен примерно семьюдесятью или семьюдесятью двумя писцами и старейшинами, которые были эллинскими евреями . ^{[ 24 ]} началось в Александрии в конце третьего века до нашей эры и завершилось к 132 году до нашей эры. ^{[ 25 ]}^{[ 26 ]}^{[ а ]} Вероятно, он был заказан Птолемеем II Филадельфом , царем Египта, и был адресован нуждам преимущественно грекоязычных евреев греко-римской диаспоры. ^{[ 25 ]}^{[ 27 ]} Существующие полные копии Септуагинты датируются третьим-пятым веками нашей эры, а фрагменты датируются вторым веком до нашей эры. ^{[ 28 ]} Пересмотр его текста начался еще в первом веке до нашей эры. ^{[ 29 ]} Фрагменты Септуагинты были найдены среди свитков Мертвого моря; части его текста также можно найти на существующих папирусах из Египта, датируемых вторым и первым веками до нашей эры и первым веком нашей эры. ^{[ 29 ]}^: 5

Масореты текстом 24 начали разрабатывать то, что впоследствии стало авторитетным еврейским и арамейским книг еврейской Библии в раввинистическом иудаизме, ближе к концу периода Талмуда ( ок. 300 – ок. 500 г. н.э. ), но точную дату определить трудно. . ^{[ 30 ]}^{[ 31 ]}^{[ 32 ]} В шестом и седьмом веках три еврейские общины разработали систему написания точного буквенного текста с его вокализацией и акцентуацией , известную как массора (от которой мы получили термин «масоретский»). ^{[ 30 ]} Эти ранние масоретские ученые базировались в основном в галилейских городах Тверии и Иерусалиме, а также в Вавилонии (современный Ирак). Жители еврейской общины Тивериады в древней Галилее ( ок. 750–950 ) делали писцовые копии текстов еврейской Библии без стандартного текста, который имелся в вавилонской традиции, на основе которого можно было бы работать. Поэтому каноническое произношение еврейской Библии (называемой тиверийским ивритом), которое они разработали, и многие сделанные ими примечания отличались от вавилонского. ^{[ 33 ]} Эти различия были решены в стандартном тексте, названном масоретским текстом в девятом веке. ^{[ 34 ]} Самая старая сохранившаяся полная копия - это Ленинградский кодекс, датируемый ок. 1000 г. н.э. ^{[ 35 ]}

Самаритянское Пятикнижие — это версия Торы, поддерживаемая самаритянской общиной с древнейших времен, которая была заново открыта европейскими учёными в 17 веке; его самые старые существующие копии датируются ок. 1100 г. н.э. ^{[ 36 ]} Самаритяне включают в свой библейский канон только Пятикнижие (Тору). ^{[ 37 ]} Они не признают божественное авторство или вдохновение ни в одной другой книге еврейского Танаха. ^{[ б ]} Самаритянская Книга Иисуса Навина Танаха существует, частично основанная на Книге Иисуса Навина , но самаритяне считают ее неканонической светской исторической хроникой. ^{[ 38 ]}

В седьмом веке был создан первый кодекс еврейской Библии. Кодекс является предшественником современной книги. Популяризированный ранними христианами, он был сделан путем складывания одного листа папируса пополам, образуя «страницы». Соединение множества этих сложенных страниц вместе позволило создать «книгу», которая была более доступной и портативной, чем свитки. В 1488 году была выпущена первая полная печатная версия еврейской Библии. ^{[ 39 ]}

Новый Завет

Во время возникновения христианства в первом веке нашей эры новые Священные Писания были написаны на греческом языке койне. Христиане в конечном итоге назвали эти новые писания «Новым Заветом», а Септуагинту стали называть «Ветхим Заветом». ^{[ 41 ]} Новый Завет сохранился в большем количестве рукописей, чем любой другой древний труд. ^{[ 42 ]}^{[ 43 ]} Большинство ранних христианских переписчиков не были обученными писцами. ^{[ 44 ]} Многие копии Евангелий и посланий Павла были сделаны отдельными христианами в течение относительно короткого периода времени, вскоре после того, как были написаны оригиналы. ^{[ 45 ]} В синоптических евангелиях, в трудах отцов ранней церкви , от Маркиона и в Дидахе есть свидетельства того, что христианские документы находились в обращении до конца первого века. ^{[ 46 ]}^{[ 47 ]} Письма Павла были распространены при его жизни, и считается, что его смерть произошла до 68 года, во время правления Нерона. ^{[ 48 ]}^{[ 49 ]} Ранние христиане развозили эти сочинения по всей Империи, переводя их на древнесирийский , коптский , эфиопский , латынь и другие языки. ^{[ 50 ]}

Барт Эрман объясняет, как эти многочисленные тексты позже были сгруппированы учеными по категориям:

В первые века существования церкви христианские тексты копировались в любом месте, где они были написаны или куда бы они ни были перенесены. Поскольку тексты копировались локально, неудивительно, что в разных местах сложились разные виды текстовых традиций. То есть рукописи в Риме содержали множество одних и тех же ошибок, поскольку по большей части они были «внутренними» документами, скопированными друг у друга; на них не оказало большого влияния рукописи, копируемые в Палестине; а те, что были в Палестине, приобрели свои собственные характеристики, которые не были такими же, как те, что были найдены в таких местах, как Александрия в Египте. Более того, в первые века существования церкви в некоторых регионах писцы были лучше, чем в других. Современные ученые пришли к выводу, что писцы в Александрии – которая была крупным интеллектуальным центром древнего мира – были особенно щепетильны даже в эти первые века и что там, в Александрии, сохранилась очень чистая форма текста раннего периода. Христианские писания сохранялись десятилетие за десятилетием преданными своему делу и относительно опытными христианскими писцами. ^{[ 51 ]}

Эти разные истории породили то, что современные ученые называют узнаваемыми «типами текстов». Наиболее распространенными из них являются Александрийский , Западный , Кесарийский и Византийский . ^{[ 52 ]}

Список книг, включенных в католическую Библию, был установлен в качестве канона Римским собором в 382 году, за ним последовали книги Гиппона в 393 году и Карфагена в 397 году. Между 385 и 405 годами нашей эры ранняя христианская церковь перевела свой канон на народную латынь ( обычная латынь, на которой говорят простые люди), перевод, известный как Вульгата . ^{[ 53 ]} С тех пор христиане-католики проводят экуменические соборы для стандартизации своего библейского канона. ( Тридентский собор 1545–1563 гг.), проведенный католической церковью в ответ на протестантскую Реформацию , утвердил Вульгату в качестве официального латинского перевода Библии. ^{[ 54 ]} С тех пор возник ряд библейских канонов. Христианские библейские каноны варьируются от 73 книг канона католической церкви и 66-книжного канона большинства протестантских конфессий до 81 книги канона Эфиопской православной церкви Тевахедо и других. ^{[ 55 ]} Иудаизм уже давно принял единый авторитетный текст, тогда как христианство никогда не имело официальной версии, вместо этого существовало множество различных рукописных традиций. ^{[ 56 ]}

Варианты

Те, кто их копировал, относились ко всем библейским текстам с почтением и заботой, однако во всех библейских рукописях имеются ошибки передачи, называемые вариантами. ^{[ 57 ]}^{[ 58 ]} Вариант — любое отклонение между двумя текстами. Текстовый критик Дэниел Б. Уоллес объясняет, что «каждое отклонение считается одним вариантом, независимо от того, сколько манускриптов [рукописей] подтверждают это». ^{[ 59 ]} Исследователь иврита Эмануэль Тов говорит, что этот термин не носит оценочного характера; это признание того, что пути развития разных текстов разошлись. ^{[ 60 ]}

Средневековые рукописные рукописи еврейской Библии считались чрезвычайно точными: наиболее авторитетными документами, с которых можно было копировать другие тексты. ^{[ 61 ]} Несмотря на это, Дэвид Карр утверждает, что тексты на иврите все еще содержат некоторые варианты. ^{[ 62 ]} Большинство вариантов случайны, например, из-за орфографических ошибок, но некоторые изменения были преднамеренными. ^{[ 63 ]} В еврейском тексте «варианты памяти» обычно представляют собой случайные различия, о чем свидетельствуют такие вещи, как сдвиг в порядке слов, обнаруженный в 1 Паралипоменон 17:24 и 2 Царств 10:9 и 13. Варианты также включают замену лексических эквивалентов, семантических и грамматические различия и более масштабные изменения по порядку, с некоторыми серьезными изменениями масоретских текстов, которые, должно быть, были преднамеренными. ^{[ 64 ]}

Намеренные изменения в текстах Нового Завета были внесены для улучшения грамматики, устранения неточностей, гармонизации параллельных отрывков, объединения и упрощения нескольких вариантов прочтения в одно, а также по богословским причинам. ^{[ 63 ]}^{[ 65 ]} Брюс К. Вальтке отмечает, что в недавнем критическом издании еврейской Библии Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia был отмечен один вариант на каждые десять слов, в результате чего 90% еврейского текста осталось без изменений. Объединенного библейского общества В четвертом издании Нового Завета на греческом языке отмечаются варианты, затрагивающие около 500 из 6900 слов, или около 7% текста. ^{[ 66 ]}

Содержание и темы

Темы

Повествования, законы, мудрые изречения, притчи и уникальные жанры Библии предоставляют возможность для обсуждения большинства тем, волнующих людей: роль женщин, ^{[ 67 ]}^: 203 секс, ^{[ 68 ]} дети, брак, ^{[ 69 ]} соседи, ^{[ 70 ]}^: 24 друзья, природа власти и разделение власти, ^{[ 71 ]}^: 45–48 животные, деревья и природа, ^{[ 72 ]}^{: xi} деньги и экономика, ^{[ 73 ]}^: 77 работа, отношения, ^{[ 74 ]} печаль, отчаяние и природа радости, среди прочего. ^{[ 75 ]} Философ и специалист по этике Жако Герике добавляет: «Значение добра и зла, природа добра и зла, критерии морального различения, действительные источники морали, происхождение и приобретение моральных убеждений, онтологический статус моральных норм, моральный авторитет, культурный плюрализм, [а также] аксиологические и эстетические предположения о природе ценности и красоты — все это неявно присутствует в текстах». ^{[ 76 ]}

Однако различение тем некоторых библейских текстов может быть проблематичным. ^{[ 77 ]} Большая часть Библии написана в повествовательной форме, и в целом библейское повествование воздерживается от каких-либо прямых указаний, а в некоторых текстах намерения автора нелегко расшифровать. ^{[ 78 ]} Читателю предоставляется право определять хорошее и плохое, правильное и неправильное, и путь к пониманию и практике редко бывает простым. ^{[ 79 ]} Иногда Бог изображается играющим определенную роль в сюжете, но чаще всего о реакции Бога на события мало говорится, и вообще нет упоминаний об одобрении или неодобрении того, что персонажи сделали или не сделали. ^{[ 80 ]} Писатель не дает комментариев, и читателю остается делать выводы, что он хочет. ^{[ 80 ]} Еврейские философы Шалом Карми и Дэвид Шац объясняют, что Библия «часто сопоставляет противоречивые идеи без объяснений и извинений». ^{[ 81 ]}

Еврейская Библия содержит предположения о природе знания, веры, истины, интерпретации, понимания и когнитивных процессов. ^{[ 82 ]} Специалист по этике Майкл В. Фокс пишет, что основная аксиома книги Притчей заключается в том, что «упражнение человеческого разума является необходимым и достаточным условием правильного и успешного поведения во всех сферах жизни». ^{[ 83 ]} Библия учит природе веских аргументов, природе и силе языка, а также его отношению к реальности. ^{[ 76 ]} По мнению Миттлмана, Библия предоставляет образцы моральных рассуждений, в которых основное внимание уделяется поведению и характеру. ^{[ 84 ]}^{[ 85 ]}

В библейской метафизике люди обладают свободой воли, но это относительная и ограниченная свобода. ^{[ 86 ]} Бич говорит, что христианский волюнтаризм указывает на волю как на основу личности и что в человеческой природе «ядро того, кем мы являемся, определяется тем, что мы любим». ^{[ 87 ]} Естественный закон присутствует в литературе Мудрости, в Пророках, в Послании к Римлянам 1, Деяниях 17 и в книге Амоса (Амос 1:3–2:5), где народы, кроме Израиля, несут ответственность за свои этические решения, даже если они этого не делают. Я не знаю еврейского бога. ^{[ 88 ]} Политический теоретик Майкл Уолцер находит политику в еврейской Библии в завете, законе и пророчествах, которые представляют собой раннюю форму почти демократической политической этики. ^{[ 89 ]} Ключевые элементы библейского уголовного правосудия начинаются с веры в Бога как источник правосудия и судью всех, включая тех, кто вершит правосудие на земле. ^{[ 90 ]}

Карми и Шац говорят, что Библия «изображает характер Бога, представляет описание творения, постулирует метафизику божественного провидения и божественного вмешательства, предлагает основу для морали, обсуждает многие особенности человеческой природы и часто ставит пресловутую загадку о том, как Бог может допустить зло». ^{[ 91 ]}

Еврейская Библия

Авторитетная еврейская Библия взята из масоретского текста (так называемого Ленинградского кодекса ), датируемого 1008 годом. Поэтому еврейскую Библию иногда можно назвать масоретским текстом. ^{[ 92 ]}

Еврейская Библия также известна под названием Танах ( ивр .: תנ"ך ‎). Это отражает тройное разделение еврейских писаний: Тора («Учение»), Невиим («Пророки») и Ктувим («Писания») с использованием первых букв каждого слова. ^{[ 93 ]} Лишь в Вавилонском Талмуде ( ок. 550 г. до н.э. ) было найдено перечисление содержания этих трех разделов Священных Писаний. ^{[ 94 ]}

Танах был в основном написан на библейском иврите , с некоторыми небольшими частями (Ездра 4:8–6:18 и 7:12–26, Иеремия 10:11, Даниил 2:4–7:28). ^{[ 95 ]} написан на библейском арамейском языке, который стал лингва-франка для большей части семитского мира. ^{[ 96 ]}

Тора

Свиток Торы , найденный в синагоге Глокенгассе в Кельне

Тора (תּוֹרָה) также известна как «Пять книг Моисея » или Пятикнижие , что означает «пять свитков». ^{[ 97 ]} Традиционно считалось, что эти книги были продиктованы Моисею самим Богом. ^{[ 98 ]}^{[ 99 ]} С 17 века ученые рассматривали оригинальные источники как продукт нескольких анонимных авторов, но при этом допускали возможность того, что Моисей первым собрал отдельные источники. ^{[ 100 ]}^{[ 101 ]} Существует множество гипотез относительно того, когда и как была составлена Тора . ^{[ 102 ]} но существует общее мнение, что свою окончательную форму он принял во время правления Персидской империи Ахеменидов (вероятно, 450–350 гг. До н. Э.), ^{[ 103 ]}^{[ 104 ]} или, возможно, в ранний эллинистический период (333–164 гг. До н. Э.). ^{[ 105 ]}

Названия книг на иврите происходят от первых слов соответствующих текстов. Тора состоит из следующих пяти книг:

Бытие , Берешит
Исход , Шмот (имена)
Левит , Ваикра
Числа , Бамидбар (в пустыне)
Второзаконие , Деварим (Второзаконие)

В первых одиннадцати главах Бытия рассказывается о сотворении (или устройстве) мира и истории ранних отношений Бога с человечеством. Остальные тридцать девять глав Бытия представляют собой отчет о завете Бога с библейскими патриархами Авраамом , Исааком и Иаковом (также называемыми Израилем ) и детьми Иакова, « Детями Израиля », особенно Иосифом . В нем рассказывается о том, как Бог повелел Аврааму оставить свою семью и дом в городе Ур , чтобы в конечном итоге поселиться в земле Ханаанской , и как дети Израиля позже переселились в Египет.

Остальные четыре книги Торы рассказывают историю Моисея , жившего через сотни лет после патриархов. Он ведет детей Израиля от рабства в древнем Египте к обновлению их завета с Богом на горе Синай и их странствиям по пустыне, пока новое поколение не будет готово войти в землю Ханаанскую. Тора заканчивается смертью Моисея. ^{[ 106 ]}

Заповеди Торы составляют основу еврейского религиозного закона . Традиция гласит, что существует 613 заповедей ( тарьяг мицвот ).

Невиим

Невиим ( иврит : נְבִיאִים , латинизированный : Nəḇî'îm , «Пророки») — второй основной раздел Танаха, между Торой и Ктувим. Он состоит из двух подгрупп: прежних пророков ( Невиим Ришоним נביאים ראשונים , повествовательных книг Иисуса Навина, Судей, Самуила и царей) и последних пророков ( Невиим Аароним נביאים אחרונים , книги Исайи, Дж. Еремия и Иезекииль и Двенадцать малых пророков ).

«Невиим» рассказывают историю возникновения еврейской монархии и ее разделения на два царства, Израильское царство и Иудейское царство , уделяя особое внимание конфликтам между израильтянами и другими народами, а также конфликтам между израильтянами, в частности, борьбе между верующие в «Господа Бога » ^{[ 107 ]} ( Яхве ) и верующие в чужих богов, ^{[ с ]}^{[ д ]} и критика неэтичного и несправедливого поведения израильской элиты и правителей; ^{[ и ]}^{[ ж ]}^{[ г ]} в котором пророки сыграли решающую и ведущую роль. Он заканчивается завоеванием Израильского царства Неоассирийской империей , за которым следует завоевание Иудейского царства нововавилонской империей и разрушением Храма в Иерусалиме .

Бывшие Пророки

Бывшие пророки — это книги Иисуса Навина, Судей, Самуила и Царей. Они содержат повествования, которые начинаются сразу после смерти Моисея с божественного назначения Иисуса Навина его преемником, который затем ведет народ Израиля в Землю Обетованную , и заканчиваются освобождением из заточения последнего царя Иудеи . Рассматривая Самуила и Царств как отдельные книги, они охватывают:

Завоевание Иисусом Навином земли Ханаанской (в Книге Иисуса Навина ),
борьба народа за обладание землей (в Книге Судей ),
просьба народа к Богу дать им царя, чтобы они могли занять землю перед лицом своих врагов (в Книгах Самуила )
владение землей под властью назначенных Богом царей Дома Давида , закончившееся завоеванием и изгнанием за границу ( Книги царей )

Последние пророки

Последними пророками являются Исайя , Иеремия , Иезекииль и Двенадцать малых пророков , которые считаются одной книгой.

Осия , Осия (הושע) осуждает поклонение другим богам, кроме Иеговы, сравнивая Израиль с женщиной, неверной своему мужу.
Иоэль , Йоэль (יואל) включает в себя плач и обещание от Бога.
Амос , Амос (עמוס) говорит о социальной справедливости, обеспечивая основу для естественного закона, применяя его как к неверующим, так и к верующим.
Авдия , Овадья (עבדיה) обращается к суду Эдома и восстановлению Израиля.
Иона , Йона (יונה) рассказывает о вынужденном искуплении Ниневии.
Михей , Миха (מיכה) упрекает несправедливых лидеров, защищает права бедных и надеется на мир во всем мире.
Наум , Наум (Наум) говорит о разрушении Ниневии.
Аввакум , Авакук (חבקוק) поддерживает доверие к Богу над Вавилоном.
Софония , Цефанья (צפניה) провозглашает пришествие суда, выживание и триумф остатка.
Хаггай , Хагай восстанавливают Второй Храм.
Захария , Захария (זכריה) Бог благословляет тех, кто кается и чист.
Малахия , Малахи (מלאכי) исправляет распущенное религиозное и социальное поведение.

Вот так

Кетувим или Кəṯûḇîm (на библейском иврите : כְּתוּבִים «писания») — третий и последний раздел Танаха. Считается, что Ктувим были написаны под вдохновением Руаха ХаКодеш (Святого Духа), но с авторитетом на один уровень меньше, чем у пророчеств . ^{[ 108 ]}

В масоретских рукописях (и некоторых печатных изданиях) Псалмы, Притчи и Иов представлены в особой двухколонной форме, подчеркивающей их внутренний параллелизм, обнаруженный на ранних этапах изучения еврейской поэзии. «Стихи» — это строки, составляющие стих, «части которого параллельны по форме и содержанию». ^{[ 109 ]} В совокупности эти три книги известны как Сифрей Эмет (аббревиатура названий на иврите איוב, משלי, תהלים дает Эмет אמ"ת, что также на иврите означает «истина»). Кантилляция на иврите - это способ пения ритуальных чтений. как они записаны и отмечены в масоретском тексте Библии, Псалмы, Иов и Притчи образуют группу с «особой системой» акцентирования, используемой только в этих трех книгах. ^{[ 110 ]}

Пять свитков

Пять относительно коротких книг : «Песнь Песней» , «Книга Руфи» , « Книга Плача» , «Экклезиаст» и «Книга Эстер» известны под общим названием « Хамеш Мегилот» . Это последние книги, собранные и признанные авторитетными в еврейском каноне, хотя они были завершены только во втором веке нашей эры. ^{[ 111 ]}

Другие книги

Книги Есфири , Даниила , Ездры-Неемии. ^{[ ч ]} и «Хроники» имеют особый стиль, которого нет ни в одном другом еврейском литературном тексте, библейском или внебиблейском. ^{[ 112 ]} Они не были написаны в обычном стиле иврита периода после изгнания. Авторы этих книг, должно быть, по неизвестным причинам решили писать в своем особом стиле. ^{[ 113 ]}

Все их повествования открыто описывают относительно поздние события (т. е. вавилонское пленение и последующее восстановление Сиона).
Талмудическая традиция приписывает всем им позднее авторство.
Две из них (Даниил и Ездра) — единственные книги Танаха, значительная часть которых написана на арамейском языке .

Заказ книги

В следующем списке книги Ктувима представлены в том порядке, в котором они появляются в большинстве последних печатных изданий.

Теилим ( Псалмы ) תְהִלִּים — это антология отдельных еврейских религиозных гимнов.
Мишлей ( Книга пословиц ) מִשְלֵי представляет собой «сборник сборников» о ценностях, моральном поведении, смысле жизни и правильном поведении, а также его основе веры.
Iyyôbh ( Книга Иова ) אִיּוֹב рассказывает о вере, без понимания и оправдания страданий.
Шир Хашширим ( Песнь Песней ) или (Песнь Соломона) Песня Песней ( Песах ) – это поэзия о любви и сексе.
Руфь ( Книга Руфи ) רוּת ( Шабху'от ) рассказывает о моавитянке Руфи, которая решает следовать за Богом израильтян и остается верной своей свекрови, которая затем получает награду.
Эйха ( Плач ) איכה ( Девятое Ава ) [также называемое Киннот на иврите.] представляет собой сборник поэтических плачей о разрушении Иерусалима в 586 году до нашей эры.
Кохелет ( Экклезиаст ) קהלת ( Суккот ) содержит мудрые высказывания, с которыми не согласны ученые. Позитивное и жизнеутверждающее оно или глубоко пессимистическое?
Эстер ( Книга Эстер ) אֶסְתֵר ( Пурим ) рассказывает о еврейской женщине в Персии, которая становится царицей и предотвращает геноцид своего народа.
Даниэль ( Книга Даниила ) דָּנִיֵּאל сочетает в себе пророчество и эсхатологию (конец времен) в истории о том, как Бог спасает Даниила так же, как Он спасет Израиль.
Эзра ( Книга Ездры – Книга Неемии ) עזרא рассказывает о восстановлении стен Иерусалима после вавилонского изгнания.
Диврей ха-Ямим ( «Хроники» ) содержит генеалогию.

Еврейская текстовая традиция так и не определила порядок расположения книг в Ктувиме. Вавилонский Талмуд ( Бава Батра 14б–15а) дает их порядок: Руфь, Псалмы, Иов, Притчи, Экклезиаст, Песнь Соломона, Плач Иеремии, Даниил, Свиток Эстер, Ездра, Хроники. ^{[ 114 ]}

Одним из крупных различий между вавилонской и тиверийской библейскими традициями является порядок книг. Исайя помещен после Иезекииля в Вавилонском, тогда как Паралипоменон открывает Ктувим в Тиверийском и закрывает его в Вавилонском. ^{[ 115 ]}

Ктувим — последняя из трех частей Танаха, признанная канонической. Хотя Тора, возможно, считалась Израилем каноном еще в пятом веке до нашей эры, а Бывший и Поздний пророки были канонизированы во втором веке до нашей эры, Кетувим не был фиксированным каноном до второго века нашей эры. ^{[ 111 ]}

Однако факты свидетельствуют о том, что вскоре после канонизации пророков народ Израиля добавил к своей священной литературе то, что впоследствии стало Кетувим. Упоминания еще в 132 г. до н.э. позволяют предположить, что Кетувим начал обретать форму, хотя у него не было официального названия. ^{[ 116 ]} В противовес Апиону , сочинение Иосифа Флавия в 95 году н.э. трактовало текст еврейской Библии как закрытый канон, к которому «...никто не осмеливался ни добавить, ни удалить, ни изменить ни одного слога...» ^{[ 117 ]} В течение длительного периода после 95 г. н. э. божественное вдохновение Есфири, «Песни Песней » и Экклезиаста часто подвергалось тщательному изучению. ^{[ 118 ]}

Септуагинта

Септуагинта («Перевод семидесяти», также называемый «LXX») — это перевод еврейской Библии на греческий койне, начатый в конце третьего века до нашей эры.

По мере продвижения работы по переводу Септуагинта расширялась: различные агиографические в собрание пророческих писаний были включены произведения. Кроме того, некоторые новые книги, такие как «Книги Маккавеев» и «Мудрость Сираха» были добавлены . Они относятся к числу «апокрифических» книг (книг, подлинность которых подвергается сомнению). Включение этих текстов и заявление о некоторых неправильных переводах способствовали тому, что Септуагинту стали рассматривать как «небрежный» перевод, и в конечном итоге ее отвергли как действительный еврейский библейский текст. ^{[ 119 ]}^{[ 120 ]}^{[ я ]}

Апокрифы - это еврейская литература, в основном периода Второго Храма (ок. 550 г. до н.э. - 70 г. н.э.); они произошли из Израиля, Сирии, Египта или Персии; Первоначально они были написаны на иврите, арамейском или греческом языке и пытались рассказать о библейских персонажах и темах. ^{[ 122 ]} Их происхождение неясно. Одна старая теория о том, откуда они пришли, утверждала, что «александрийский» канон был принят среди живших там грекоязычных евреев, но с тех пор от этой теории отказались. ^{[ 123 ]} Есть основания полагать, что они не были приняты, в то время как остальная часть еврейского канона была принята. ^{[ 123 ]} Понятно, что апокрифы использовались во времена Нового Завета, но «они никогда не цитируются как Священное Писание». ^{[ 124 ]} В современном иудаизме ни одна из апокрифических книг не признается аутентичной и поэтому исключается из канона. Однако «эфиопские евреи, которых иногда называют фалашами, имеют расширенный канон, включающий некоторые апокрифические книги». ^{[ 125 ]}

Раввины также хотели отличить свою традицию от недавно возникшей традиции христианства. ^{[ а ]}^{[ Дж ]} Наконец, раввины заявили о божественном авторитете иврита, в отличие от арамейского или греческого, хотя эти языки были лингва -франка евреев в тот период (и арамейскому языку в конечном итоге будет присвоен статус священного языка, сравнимого с ивритом). . ^{[ к ]}

Объединения от Феодотиона

Книга Даниила сохранилась в масоретском тексте из 12 глав и в двух более длинных греческих версиях, оригинальной версии Септуагинты, ок. 100 г. до н.э. , и более поздняя Феодотиона версия ок. второй век нашей эры . Оба греческих текста содержат три дополнения к Даниилу : « Молитва Азарии» и «Песнь трех святых детей» ; история Сюзанны и старейшин ; и история Бела и Дракона . Перевод Феодотиона настолько широко копировался в раннехристианской церкви, что его версия Книги Даниила практически вытеснила версию Септуагинты. Священник Иероним в своем предисловии к книге Даниила (407 г. н. э.) записывает отказ от Септуагинтовой версии этой книги в христианском использовании: «Я... хочу подчеркнуть читателю тот факт, что это не соответствовало Септуагинтовой версии. но по версии самого Феодотиона, что церкви публично читали Даниила». ^{[ 126 ]} В предисловии Иеронима также упоминается, что в Гексапле были примечания, указывающие на несколько основных различий в содержании между Теодотионом Даниилом и более ранними версиями на греческом и иврите.

«Даниил» Феодотиона ближе к сохранившейся версии масоретского текста на иврите, тексту, который является основой большинства современных переводов. Даниил Феодотиона также воплощен в официальном издании Септуагинты, опубликованном Сикстом V в 1587 году. ^{[ 127 ]}

Окончательная форма

Критики текста сейчас спорят о том, как примирить более раннее мнение о Септуагинте как о «небрежной» с содержанием свитков Мертвого моря в Кумране, свитков, обнаруженных в Вади Мураббаат, Нахаль-Хевер и свитков, обнаруженных в Масаде. Эти свитки на 1000–1300 лет старше ленинградского текста, датированного 1008 годом нашей эры, который составляет основу масоретского текста. ^{[ 128 ]} Свитки подтвердили большую часть масоретского текста, но они также и отличались от него, и многие из этих различий согласуются с Септуагинтой, самаритянским Пятикнижием или греческим Ветхим Заветом. ^{[ 119 ]}

Среди кумранских текстов имеются также копии некоторых текстов, позже объявленных апокрифическими. ^{[ 123 ]} Сейчас известно, что древние рукописи книги Сираха, «Псалмов Иисуса Навина», Товита и Послания Иеремии существовали в еврейской версии. ^{[ 129 ]} Версия Септуагинты некоторых библейских книг, таких как Книга Даниила и Книга Эстер, длиннее, чем версии еврейского канона. В Септуагинте Иеремия короче, чем в масоретском тексте, но сокращенный еврейский Иеремия был найден в Кумране, в пещере 4. ^{[ 119 ]} Свитки Исайи, Исхода, Иеремии, Даниила и Самуила представляют собой яркие и важные текстовые варианты масоретского текста. ^{[ 119 ]} Септуагинта сейчас рассматривается как тщательный перевод другой еврейской формы или редакция (пересмотренное добавление текста) некоторых книг, но споры о том, как лучше всего охарактеризовать эти разнообразные тексты, продолжаются. ^{[ 119 ]}

Псевдоэпиграфические книги

Псевдоэпиграфы — произведения, авторство которых установлено ошибочно. Письменное произведение может быть псевдоэпиграфическим и не быть подделкой, поскольку подделки намеренно вводят в заблуждение. В случае псевдоэпиграфов авторство было передано неверно по одной из множества причин. ^{[ 130 ]}

Апокрифические и псевдоэпиграфические произведения – это не одно и то же. Апокрифы включают в себя все сочинения, претендующие на священность и находящиеся вне канона, поскольку они не принимаются как подлинно то, чем они себя называют. Например, Евангелие от Варнавы утверждает, что оно написано Варнавой, спутником апостола Павла, но обе его рукописи датируются средневековьем. Псевдеэпиграфы — это литературная категория всех произведений, канонических или апокрифических. Они могут быть подлинными, а могут и не быть подлинными во всех смыслах, за исключением неправильно понятого авторства. ^{[ 130 ]}

Термин «псевдоэпиграф» обычно используется для описания многочисленных произведений еврейской религиозной литературы, написанных примерно с 300 г. до н.э. по 300 г. н.э. Не все эти произведения на самом деле являются псевдоэпиграфическими. (Это также относится к книгам новозаветного канона, авторство которых подвергается сомнению.) К ветхозаветным псевдоэпиграфическим произведениям относятся следующие: ^{[ 131 ]}

3 Маккавея
4 Маккавея
Успение Моисея
Эфиопская книга Еноха (1 Енох)
Славянская Книга Еноха (2 Еноха)
Еврейская Книга Еноха (3 Еноха) (также известная как «Откровение Метатрона» или «Книга раввина Измаила Первосвященника»)
Книга юбилеев
Сирийский Апокалипсис Варуха (2 Варуха)
Письмо Аристея (Письмо Филократу о переводе еврейских писаний на греческий)
Жизнь Адама и Евы
Мученичество и Вознесение Исаии
Псалмы Соломона
Сивиллинские оракулы
Греческий Апокалипсис Варуха (3 Варуха)
Заветы Двенадцати Патриархов

Книга Еноха

Известные псевдоэпиграфические произведения включают «Книги Еноха», такие как 1 Енох , 2 Енох , сохранившиеся только на старославянском языке , и 3 Енох , сохранившиеся на иврите ок . пятый век – ок. шестой век нашей эры. Это древние еврейские религиозные произведения, традиционно приписываемые пророку Еноху , прадеду патриарха Ноя . Фрагмент Еноха, найденный среди кумранских свитков, свидетельствует о том, что это древнее произведение. ^{[ 132 ]} По оценкам, более старые разделы (в основном «Книги наблюдателей») датируются примерно 300 годом до нашей эры, а последняя часть (Книга притч), вероятно, была составлена в конце первого века до нашей эры. ^{[ 133 ]}

Енох не является частью библейского канона, используемого большинством евреев , за исключением Бета Израиля . Большинство христианских конфессий и традиций могут признать, что Книги Еноха имеют некоторый исторический или теологический интерес или значение. Часть Книги Еноха цитируется в Послании Иуды и Послании к Евреям (части Нового Завета), но христианские конфессии обычно считают Книги Еноха неканоническими. ^{[ 134 ]} Исключениями из этой точки зрения являются Эфиопская православная церковь Тевахедо и Эритрейская православная церковь Тевахедо. ^{[ 132 ]}

Эфиопская Библия не основана на греческой Библии, и Эфиопская церковь имеет несколько иное понимание канона, чем другие христианские традиции. ^{[ 135 ]} В Эфиопии канон не имеет такой степени жесткости (но и не является полностью открытым). ^{[ 135 ]} Енох уже давно рассматривается как вдохновленное Священное Писание, но быть библейским и быть каноническим не всегда воспринимается одинаково. Официальный эфиопский канон насчитывает 81 книгу, но это число достигается по-разному с помощью различных списков разных книг, и книга Еноха иногда включается, а иногда нет. ^{[ 135 ]} Имеющиеся данные подтверждают, что Енох был каноническим как в Эфиопии, так и в Эритрее. ^{[ 132 ]}

Христианская Библия

Христианская Библия – это набор книг, разделенных на Ветхий и Новый Завет, которые христианская конфессия в какой-то момент своего прошлого или настоящего считала богодухновенными писаниями Святого Духа . ^{[ 136 ]} в Ранняя церковь основном использовала Септуагинту, написанную на греческом языке, общем языке того времени, или Таргумы среди говорящих на арамейском языке . Современные английские переводы раздела Ветхого Завета христианской Библии основаны на масоретском тексте . ^{[ 35 ]} Послания Павла и Евангелия вскоре были добавлены вместе с другими произведениями в Новый Завет. ^{[ 137 ]}

Ветхий Завет

Ветхий Завет играл важную роль в жизни христианской церкви с самых первых дней ее существования. Исследователь Библии Н.Т. Райт говорит: «Сам Иисус был глубоко сформирован Священными Писаниями». ^{[ 138 ]} Райт добавляет, что первые христиане изучали те же самые еврейские писания, пытаясь понять земную жизнь Иисуса. Они считали «священные писания» израильтян необходимыми и поучительными для христиан, как видно из слов Павла Тимофею (2 Тимофею 3:15), как указывающие на Мессию и достигшие кульминационного завершения в Иисусе, создавшем « новый завет », предсказанный Иеремией . ^{[ 139 ]}

Протестантский . Ветхий Завет XXI века имеет канон из 39 книг Количество книг (но не содержание) отличается от еврейского Танаха только из-за иного метода деления. Термин «еврейские писания» часто используется как синоним протестантского Ветхого Завета, поскольку сохранившиеся писания на иврите включают только эти книги.

Однако Римско-католическая церковь признает своим Ветхим Заветом 46 книг (45, если считать Иеремию и Плач Иеремии за одну), ^{[ 140 ]} и Восточные Православные Церкви признают еще 6 книг. Эти дополнения также включены в сирийские версии Библии, называемые Пешитта , и Эфиопскую Библию . ^{[ л ]}^{[ м ]}^{[ н ]}

Поскольку канон Священного Писания различен для евреев, православных, католиков и западных протестантов, содержание апокрифов каждой общины уникально, как и использование этого термина. Для евреев ни одна из апокрифических книг не считается канонической. Католики называют этот сборник « Второканоническими книгами » (второй канон), а Православная Церковь называет их « Анагигноскоменой » (то, что читается). ^{[ 141 ]} ^{[ о ]}

Книги, включенные в католическую, православную, греческую и славянскую Библии: Товит , Юдифь , Премудрость Соломона , Сирах (или Экклезиастик), Варух , Послание Иеремии (также называемое Варухом, глава 6), 1 Маккавеев , 2 Маккавеев. , греческие дополнения к Есфири и греческие дополнения к Даниилу . ^{[ 142 ]}

Греческая православная церковь и славянские церкви (Беларусь, Босния и Герцеговина, Болгария, Северная Македония, Черногория, Польша, Украина, Россия, Сербия, Чехия, Словакия, Словения и Хорватия) также добавляют: ^{[ 143 ]}

3 Maccabees
1 Esdras (called 2 Esdras in the Slavonic canon)
Prayer of Manasseh
Psalm 151

2 Esdras (4 Ezra) and the Prayer of Manasseh are not in the Septuagint, and 2 Esdras does not exist in Greek, though it does exist in Latin. There is also 4 Maccabees which is only accepted as canonical in the Georgian Church. It is in an appendix to the Greek Orthodox Bible, and it is therefore sometimes included in collections of the Apocrypha.^[144]

The Syriac Orthodox Church also includes:

The Ethiopian Old Testament Canon uses Enoch and Jubilees (that only survived in Ge'ez), 1–3 Meqabyan, Greek Ezra and the Apocalypse of Ezra, and Psalm 151.^[n]^[l]

The Revised Common Lectionary of the Lutheran Church, Moravian Church, Reformed Churches, Anglican Church and Methodist Church uses the apocryphal books liturgically, with alternative Old Testament readings available.^[p] Therefore, editions of the Bible intended for use in the Lutheran Church and Anglican Church include the fourteen books of the Apocrypha, many of which are the deuterocanonical books accepted by the Catholic Church, plus 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh, which were in the Vulgate appendix.^[147]

The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches use most of the books of the Septuagint, while Protestant churches usually do not. After the Protestant Reformation, many Protestant Bibles began to follow the Jewish canon and exclude the additional texts, which came to be called apocryphal. The Apocrypha are included under a separate heading in the King James Version of the Bible, the basis for the Revised Standard Version.^[148]

Law
The Orthodox Old Testament^[149]^[q]	Greek-based name	Conventional English name
Γένεσις	Génesis	Genesis
Ἔξοδος	Éxodos	Exodus
Λευϊτικόν	Leuitikón	Leviticus
Ἀριθμοί	Arithmoí	Numbers
Δευτερονόμιον	Deuteronómion	Deuteronomy
History
Ἰησοῦς Nαυῆ	Iêsous Nauê	Joshua
Κριταί	Kritaí	Judges
Ῥούθ	Roúth	Ruth
Βασιλειῶν Αʹ^[r]	I Reigns	I Samuel
Βασιλειῶν Βʹ	II Reigns	II Samuel
Βασιλειῶν Γʹ	III Reigns	I Kings
Βασιλειῶν Δʹ	IV Reigns	II Kings
Παραλειπομένων Αʹ	I Paralipomenon^[s]	I Chronicles
Παραλειπομένων Βʹ	II Paralipomenon	II Chronicles
Ἔσδρας Αʹ	I Esdras	1 Esdras
Ἔσδρας Βʹ	II Esdras	Ezra–Nehemiah
Τωβίτ^[t]	Tobit	Tobit or Tobias
Ἰουδίθ	Ioudith	Judith
Ἐσθήρ	Esther	Esther with additions
Μακκαβαίων Αʹ	I Makkabaioi	1 Maccabees
Μακκαβαίων Βʹ	II Makkabaioi	2 Maccabees
Μακκαβαίων Γʹ	III Makkabaioi	3 Maccabees
Wisdom
Ψαλμοί	Psalms	Psalms
Ψαλμός ΡΝΑʹ	Psalm 151	Psalm 151
Προσευχὴ Μανάσση	Prayer of Manasseh	Prayer of Manasseh
Ἰώβ	Iōb	Job
Παροιμίαι	Proverbs	Proverbs
Ἐκκλησιαστής	Ekklesiastes	Ecclesiastes
Ἆσμα Ἀσμάτων	Song of Songs	Song of Solomon or Canticles
Σοφία Σαλoμῶντος	Wisdom of Solomon	Wisdom
Σοφία Ἰησοῦ Σειράχ	Wisdom of Jesus the son of Seirach	Sirach or Ecclesiasticus
Ψαλμοί Σαλoμῶντος	Psalms of Solomon	Psalms of Solomon^[u]
Prophets
Δώδεκα	The Twelve	Minor Prophets
Ὡσηέ Αʹ	I. Osëe	Hosea
Ἀμώς Βʹ	II. Amōs	Amos
Μιχαίας Γʹ	III. Michaias	Micah
Ἰωήλ Δʹ	IV. Ioël	Joel
Ὀβδίου Εʹ^[v]	V. Obdias	Obadiah
Ἰωνᾶς Ϛ'	VI. Ionas	Jonah
Ναούμ Ζʹ	VII. Naoum	Nahum
Ἀμβακούμ Ηʹ	VIII. Ambakum	Habakkuk
Σοφονίας Θʹ	IX. Sophonias	Zephaniah
Ἀγγαῖος Ιʹ	X. Angaios	Haggai
Ζαχαρίας ΙΑʹ	XI. Zacharias	Zachariah
Ἄγγελος ΙΒʹ	XII. Messenger	Malachi
Ἠσαΐας	Hesaias	Isaiah
Ἱερεμίας	Hieremias	Jeremiah
Βαρούχ	Baruch	Baruch
Θρῆνοι	Lamentations	Lamentations
Ἐπιστολή Ιερεμίου	Epistle of Jeremiah	Letter of Jeremiah
Ἰεζεκιήλ	Iezekiêl	Ezekiel
Δανιήλ	Daniêl	Daniel with additions
Appendix
Μακκαβαίων Δ' Παράρτημα	IV Makkabees	4 Maccabees^[w]

New Testament

The New Testament is the name given to the second portion of the Christian Bible. While some scholars assert that Aramaic was the original language of the New Testament,^[151] the majority view says it was written in the vernacular form of Koine Greek. Still, there is reason to assert that it is a heavily Semitized Greek: its syntax is like conversational Greek, but its style is largely Semitic.^[152]^[x]^[y] Koine Greek was the common language of the western Roman Empire from the Conquests of Alexander the Great (335–323 BCE) until the evolution of Byzantine Greek (c. 600) while Aramaic was the language of Jesus, the Apostles and the ancient Near East.^[151]^[z]^[aa]^[ab] The term "New Testament" came into use in the second century during a controversy over whether the Hebrew Bible should be included with the Christian writings as sacred scripture.^[153]

It is generally accepted that the New Testament writers were Jews who took the inspiration of the Old Testament for granted. This is probably stated earliest in 2 Timothy 3:16: "All scripture is given by inspiration of God". Scholarship on how and why ancient Jewish–Christians came to create and accept new texts as equal to the established Hebrew texts has taken three forms. First, John Barton writes that ancient Christians probably just continued the Jewish tradition of writing and incorporating what they believed were inspired, authoritative religious books.^[154] The second approach separates those various inspired writings based on a concept of "canon" which developed in the second century.^[155] The third involves formalizing canon.^[156] According to Barton, these differences are only differences in terminology; the ideas are reconciled if they are seen as three stages in the formation of the New Testament.^[157]

The first stage was completed remarkably early if one accepts Albert C. Sundberg [de]'s view that "canon" and "scripture" are separate things, with "scripture" having been recognized by ancient Christians long before "canon" was.^[158] Barton says Theodor Zahn concluded "there was already a Christian canon by the end of the first century", but this is not the canon of later centuries.^[159] Accordingly, Sundberg asserts that in the first centuries, there was no criterion for inclusion in the "sacred writings" beyond inspiration, and that no one in the first century had the idea of a closed canon.^[160] The gospels were accepted by early believers as handed down from those Apostles who had known Jesus and been taught by him.^[161] Later biblical criticism has questioned the authorship and datings of the gospels.

At the end of the second century, it is widely recognized that a Christian canon similar to its modern version was asserted by the church fathers in response to the plethora of writings claiming inspiration that contradicted orthodoxy: (heresy).^[162] The third stage of development as the final canon occurred in the fourth century with a series of synods that produced a list of texts of the canon of the Old Testament and the New Testament that are still used today. Most notably the Synod of Hippo in 393 CE and that of c. 400. Jerome produced a definitive Latin edition of the Bible (the Vulgate), the canon of which, at the insistence of the Pope, was in accord with the earlier Synods. This process effectively set the New Testament canon.

New Testament books already had considerable authority in the late first and early second centuries.^[163] Even in its formative period, most of the books of the NT that were seen as scripture were already agreed upon. Linguistics scholar Stanley E. Porter says "evidence from the apocryphal non-Gospel literature is the same as that for the apocryphal Gospels – in other words, that the text of the Greek New Testament was relatively well established and fixed by the time of the second and third centuries".^[164] By the time the fourth century Fathers were approving the "canon", they were doing little more than codifying what was already universally accepted.^[165]

The New Testament is a collection of 27 books^[166] of 4 different genres of Christian literature (Gospels, one account of the Acts of the Apostles, Epistles and an Apocalypse). These books can be grouped into:

The Gospels are narratives of Jesus's last three years of life, his death and resurrection.

The narrative literature provides an account and history of the very early Apostolic age.

Acts of the Apostles

The Pauline epistles are written to individual church groups to address problems, provide encouragement and give instruction.

The pastoral epistles discuss the pastoral oversight of churches, Christian living, doctrine and leadership.

The Catholic epistles, also called the general epistles or lesser epistles.

Epistle of James encourages a lifestyle consistent with faith.
First Epistle of Peter addresses trial and suffering.
Second Epistle of Peter more on suffering's purposes, Christology, ethics and eschatology.
First Epistle of John covers how to discern true Christians: by their ethics, their proclamation of Jesus in the flesh, and by their love.
Second Epistle of John warns against docetism.
Third Epistle of John encourage, strengthen and warn.
Epistle of Jude condemns opponents.

The apocalyptic literature (prophetical)

Book of Revelation, or the Apocalypse, predicts end time events.

Catholicism, Protestantism, and Eastern Orthodox currently have the same 27-book New Testament Canon. They are ordered differently in the Slavonic tradition, the Syriac tradition and the Ethiopian tradition.^[167]

Canon variations

Peshitta

The Peshitta (Classical Syriac: ܦܫܺܝܛܬܳܐ or ܦܫܝܼܛܬܵܐ pšīṭtā) is the standard version of the Bible for churches in the Syriac tradition. The consensus within biblical scholarship, although not universal, is that the Old Testament of the Peshitta was translated into Syriac from biblical Hebrew, probably in the 2nd century CE, and that the New Testament of the Peshitta was translated from the Greek.^[ac] This New Testament, originally excluding certain disputed books (2 Peter, 2 John, 3 John, Jude, Revelation), had become a standard by the early 5th century. The five excluded books were added in the Harklean Version (616 CE) of Thomas of Harqel.^[ad]^[151]

Catholic Church canon

The canon of the Catholic Church was affirmed by the Council of Rome (382), the Synod of Hippo (393), the Council of Carthage (397), the Council of Carthage (419), the Council of Florence (1431–1449) and finally, as an article of faith, by the Council of Trent (1545–1563) establishing the canon consisting of 46 books in the Old Testament and 27 books in the New Testament for a total of 73 books in the Catholic Bible.^[168]^[169]^[ae]

Ethiopian Orthodox canon

The canon of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is wider than the canons used by most other Christian churches. There are 81 books in the Ethiopian Orthodox Bible.^[171] In addition to the books found in the Septuagint accepted by other Orthodox Christians, the Ethiopian Old Testament Canon uses Enoch and Jubilees (ancient Jewish books that only survived in Ge'ez, but are quoted in the New Testament),^[142] Greek Ezra and the Apocalypse of Ezra, 3 books of Meqabyan, and Psalm 151 at the end of the Psalter.^[n]^[l] The three books of Meqabyan are not to be confused with the books of Maccabees. The order of the books is somewhat different in that the Ethiopian Old Testament follows the Septuagint order for the Minor Prophets rather than the Jewish order.^[171]

New Testament Apocryphal books

The New Testament apocrypha are a number of writings by early professed Christians that give accounts of Jesus and his teachings, the nature of God, or the teachings of his Apostles and of their activities. Some of these writings were cited as Scripture by some early Christians, but since the fifth century a widespread consensus emerged limiting the New Testament to the 27 books of the modern canon.^[172]^[173] Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Western Protestant churches do not view the New Testament apocrypha as part of the inspired Bible.^[173] Although some Oriental Orthodox canons to some extent have. The Armenian Apostolic church at times has included the Third Epistle to the Corinthians, but does not always list it with the other 27 canonical New Testament books. The New Testament of the Coptic Bible, adopted by the Egyptian Church, includes the two Epistles of Clement.^[174]

Textual history

The original autographs, that is, the original Greek writings and manuscripts written by the original authors of the New Testament, have not survived.^[175] But, historically, copies of those original autographs exist and were transmitted and preserved in a number of manuscript traditions. The three main textual traditions of the Greek New Testament are sometimes called the Alexandrian text-type (generally minimalist), the Byzantine text-type (generally maximalist), and the Western text-type (occasionally wild). Together they comprise most of the ancient manuscripts. Very early on, Christianity replaced scrolls with codexes, the forerunner of bound books, and by the 3rd century, collections of biblical books began being copied as a set.^[176]

Since all ancient texts were written by hand, often by copying from another handwritten text, they are not exactly alike in the manner of printed works. The differences between them are considered generally minor and are called textual variants.^[177] A variant is simply any variation between two texts. The majority of variants are accidental, but some are intentional. Intentional changes were made to improve grammar, to eliminate discrepancies, to make Liturgical changes such as the doxology of the Lord's prayer, to harmonize parallel passages or to combine and simplify multiple variant readings into one.^[63]

Influence

With a literary tradition spanning two millennia, the Bible is one of the most influential works ever written. From practices of personal hygiene to philosophy and ethics, the Bible has directly and indirectly influenced politics and law, war and peace, sexual morals, marriage and family life, letters and learning, the arts, economics, social justice, medical care and more.^[178]

The Bible is the world's most published book, with estimated total sales of over five billion copies.^[179] As such, the Bible has had a profound influence, especially in the Western world,^[180]^[181] where the Gutenberg Bible was the first book printed in Europe using movable type.^[182] It has contributed to the formation of Western law, art, literature, and education.^[183]

Criticism

Critics view certain biblical texts to be morally problematic. The Bible neither calls for nor condemns slavery outright, but there are verses that address dealing with it, and these verses have been used to support it. Some have written that supersessionism begins in the book of Hebrews where others locate its beginnings in the culture of the fourth century Roman empire.^[184]^: 1 The Bible has been used to support the death penalty, patriarchy, sexual intolerance, the violence of total war, and colonialism.

In the Christian Bible, the violence of war is addressed four ways: pacifism, non-resistance; just war, and preventive war which is sometimes called crusade.^[185]^: 13–37 In the Hebrew Bible, there is just war and preventive war which includes the Amalekites, Canaanites, Moabites, and the record in Exodus, Deuteronomy, Joshua, and both books of Kings.^[186] John J. Collins writes that people throughout history have used these biblical texts to justify violence against their enemies.^[187] Anthropologist Leonard B. Glick offers the modern example of Jewish fundamentalists in Israel, such as Shlomo Aviner a prominent theorist of the Gush Emunim movement, who considers the Palestinians to be like biblical Canaanites, and therefore suggests that Israel "must be prepared to destroy" the Palestinians if the Palestinians do not leave the land.^[188]

Nur Masalha argues that genocide is inherent in these commandments, and that they have served as inspirational examples of divine support for slaughtering national opponents.^[189] However, the "applicability of the term [genocide] to earlier periods of history" is questioned by sociologists Frank Robert Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn.^[190] Since most societies of the past endured and practised genocide, it was accepted at that time as "being in the nature of life" because of the "coarseness and brutality" of life; the moral condemnation associated with terms like genocide are products of modern morality.^[190]^: 27 The definition of what constitutes violence has broadened considerably over time.^[191]^: 1–2 The Bible reflects how perceptions of violence changed for its authors.^[191]^: 261

Phyllis Trible, in her now famous work Texts of Terror, tells four Bible stories of suffering in ancient Israel where women are the victims. Tribble describes the Bible as "a mirror" that reflects humans, and human life, in all its "holiness and horror".^[192]

John Riches, professor of divinity and biblical criticism at the University of Glasgow, provides the following view of the diverse historical influences of the Bible:

It has inspired some of the great monuments of human thought, literature, and art; it has equally fuelled some of the worst excesses of human savagery, self-interest, and narrow-mindedness. It has inspired men and women to acts of great service and courage, to fight for liberation and human development; and it has provided the ideological fuel for societies which have enslaved their fellow human beings and reduced them to abject poverty. ... It has, perhaps above all, provided a source of religious and moral norms which have enabled communities to hold together, to care for, and to protect one another; yet precisely this strong sense of belonging has in turn fuelled ethnic, racial, and international tension and conflict. It has, that is to say, been the source of great truth, goodness, and beauty at the same time as it has inspired lies, wickedness, and ugliness.^[193]

Politics and law

The Bible has been used to support and oppose political power. It has inspired revolution and "a reversal of power" because God is so often portrayed as choosing what is "weak and humble...(the stammering Moses, the infant Samuel, Saul from an insignificant family, David confronting Goliath, etc.)....to confound the mighty".^[194]^[195] Biblical texts have been the catalyst for political concepts like democracy, religious toleration and religious freedom.^[196]^: 3 These have, in turn, inspired movements ranging from abolitionism in the 18th and 19th century, to the civil rights movement, the Anti-Apartheid Movement, and liberation theology in Latin America. The Bible has been the source of many peace movements and efforts at reconciliation around the world .^[197]

The roots of many modern laws can be found in the Bible's teachings on due process, fairness in criminal procedures, and equity in the application of the law.^[198] Judges are told not to accept bribes (Deuteronomy 16:19), are required to be impartial to native and stranger alike (Leviticus 24:22; Deuteronomy 27:19), to the needy and the powerful alike (Leviticus 19:15), and to rich and poor alike (Deuteronomy 1:16, 17; Exodus 23:2–6). The right to a fair trial, and fair punishment, are also found in the Bible (Deuteronomy 19:15; Exodus 21:23–25). Those most vulnerable in a patriarchal society – children, women, and strangers – are singled out in the Bible for special protection (Psalm 72:2, 4).^[199]^: 47–48

Social responsibility

The philosophical foundation of human rights is in the Bible's teachings of natural law.^[200]^[201] The prophets of the Hebrew Bible repeatedly admonish the people to practice justice, charity, and social responsibility. H. A. Lockton writes that "The Poverty and Justice Bible (The Bible Society (UK), 2008) claims there are more than 2000 verses in the Bible dealing with the justice issues of rich-poor relations, exploitation and oppression".^[202] Judaism practised charity and healing the sick but tended to limit these practices to their own people.^[203] For Christians, the Old Testament statements are enhanced by multiple verses such as Matthew 10:8, Luke 10:9 and 9:2, and Acts 5:16 that say "heal the sick". Authors Vern and Bonnie Bullough write in The care of the sick: the emergence of modern nursing, that this is seen as an aspect of following Jesus's example, since so much of his public ministry focused on healing.^[203]

In the process of following this command, monasticism in the third century transformed health care.^[204] This produced the first hospital for the poor in Caesarea in the fourth century. The monastic health care system was innovative in its methods, allowing the sick to remain within the monastery as a special class afforded special benefits; it destigmatized illness, legitimized the deviance from the norm that sickness includes, and formed the basis for future modern concepts of public health care.^[205] The biblical practices of feeding and clothing the poor, visiting prisoners, supporting widows and orphan children have had sweeping impact.^[206]^[207]^[208]

The Bible's emphasis on learning has had formidable influence on believers and western society. For centuries after the fall of the western Roman Empire, all schools in Europe were Bible-based church schools, and outside of monastic settlements, almost no one had the ability to read or write. These schools eventually led to the West's first universities (created by the church) in the Middle Ages which have spread around the world in the modern day.^[209] Protestant Reformers wanted all members of the church to be able to read the Bible, so compulsory education for both boys and girls was introduced. Translations of the Bible into local vernacular languages have supported the development of national literatures and the invention of alphabets.^[210]

Biblical teachings on sexual morality changed the Roman empire, the millennium that followed, and have continued to influence society.^[211] Rome's concept of sexual morality was centered on social and political status, power, and social reproduction (the transmission of social inequality to the next generation). The biblical standard was a "radical notion of individual freedom centered around a libertarian paradigm of complete sexual agency".^[212]^: 10, 38 Classicist Kyle Harper describes the change biblical teaching evoked as "a revolution in the rules of behavior, but also in the very image of the human being".^[213]^: 14–18

Literature and the arts

The Bible has directly and indirectly influenced literature: St Augustine's Confessions is widely considered the first autobiography in Western Literature.^[214] The Summa Theologica, written 1265–1274, is "one of the classics of the history of philosophy and one of the most influential works of Western literature."^[215] These both influenced the writings of Dante's epic poetry and his Divine Comedy, and in turn, Dante's creation and sacramental theology has contributed to influencing writers such as J. R. R. Tolkien^[216] and William Shakespeare.^[217]

Many masterpieces of Western art were inspired by biblical themes: from Michelangelo's David and Pietà sculptures, to Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper and Raphael's various Madonna paintings. There are hundreds of examples. Eve, the temptress who disobeys God's commandment, is probably the most widely portrayed figure in art.^[218] The Renaissance preferred the sensuous female nude, while the "femme fatale" Delilah from the nineteenth century onward demonstrates how the Bible and art both shape and reflect views of women.^[219]^[220]

The Bible has many rituals of purification which speak of clean and unclean in both literal and metaphorical terms.^[221] The biblical toilet etiquette encourages washing after all instances of defecation, hence the invention of the bidet.^[222]^[223]

Interpretation and inspiration

Biblical texts have always required interpretation, and this has given rise to multiple views and approaches according to the interplay between various religions and the book.^[224]

The primary source of Jewish commentary and interpretation of the Hebrew Bible is the Talmud. The Talmud, (which means study and learning), is a summary of ancient oral law and commentary on it.^[225] It is the primary source of Jewish Law.^[226] Adin Steinsaltz writes that "if the Bible is the cornerstone of Judaism, then the Talmud is the central pillar".^[227] Seen as the backbone of Jewish creativity, it is "a conglomerate of law, legend and philosophy, a blend of unique logic and shrewd pragmatism, of history and science, anecdotes and humor" all aimed toward the purpose of studying biblical Torah.^[226]

Christians often treat the Bible as a single book, and while John Barton says they are "some of the most profound texts humanity has ever produced", liberals and moderates see it as a collection of books that are not perfect.^[228] Conservative and fundamentalist Christians see the Bible differently and interpret it differently.^[229] Christianity interprets the Bible differently than Judaism does with Islam providing yet another view.^[230] How inspiration works and what kind of authority it means the Bible has are different for different traditions.^[231]

The Second Epistle to Timothy claims, "All Scripture is breathed out by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness" (2 Tim. 3:16).^[232] Various related but distinguishable views on divine inspiration include:

the view of the Bible as the inspired word of God: the belief that God, through the Holy Spirit, intervened and influenced the words, message, and collation of the Bible^[233]
the view that the Bible is also infallible, and incapable of error in matters of faith and practice, but not necessarily in historic or scientific matters
the view that the Bible represents the inerrant word of God, without error in any aspect, spoken by God and written down in its perfect form by humans

Within these broad beliefs many schools of hermeneutics operate. "Bible scholars claim that discussions about the Bible must be put into its context within church history and then into the context of contemporary culture."^[139] Fundamentalist Christians are associated with the doctrine of biblical literalism, where the Bible is not only inerrant, but the meaning of the text is clear to the average reader.^[234]

Jewish antiquity attests to belief in sacred texts,^[235]^[236] and a similar belief emerges in the earliest of Christian writings. Various texts of the Bible mention divine agency in relation to its writings.^[237] In their book A General Introduction to the Bible, Norman Geisler and William Nix write: "The process of inspiration is a mystery of the providence of God, but the result of this process is a verbal, plenary, inerrant, and authoritative record."^[238] Most evangelical biblical scholars^[239]^[240] associate inspiration with only the original text; for example some American Protestants adhere to the 1978 Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy which asserted that inspiration applied only to the autographic text of scripture.^[241] Among adherents of biblical literalism, a minority, such as followers of the King-James-Only Movement, extend the claim of inerrancy only to a particular version.^[242]

Religious significance

Both Judaism and Christianity see the Bible as religiously and intellectually significant.^[243] It provides insight into its time and into the composition of the texts, and it represents an important step in the development of thought.^[243] It is used in communal worship, recited and memorized, provides personal guidance, a basis for counseling, church doctrine, religious culture (teaching, hymns and worship), and ethical standards.^[243]^[244]^: 145

The Bible is centrally important to both Judaism and Christianity, but not as a holy text out of which entire religious systems can somehow be read. Its contents illuminate the origins of Christianity and Judaism, and provide spiritual classics on which both faiths can draw; but they do not constrain subsequent generations in the way that a written constitution would. They are simply not that kind of thing. They are a repository of writings, both shaping and shaped by the two religions..."^[245]

As a result, there are teachings and creeds in Christianity and laws in Judaism that are seen by those religions as derived from the Bible which are not directly in the Bible.^[84]

For the Hebrew Bible, canonization is reserved for written texts, while sacralization reaches far back into oral tradition.^[246]^: 80 When sacred stories, such as those that form the narrative base of the first five books of the Bible, were performed, "not a syllable [could] be changed in order to ensure the magical power of the words to 'presentify' the divine".^[246]^: 80 Inflexibility protected the texts from a changing world.^[246]^: 80 When sacred oral texts began the move to written transmission, commentary began being worked in, but once the text was closed by canonization, commentary needed to remain outside. Commentary still had significance. Sacred written texts were thereafter accompanied by commentary, and such commentary was sometimes written and sometimes orally transmitted, as is the case in the Islamic Madrasa and the Jewish Yeshiva.^[246]^: 81 Arguing that Torah has had a definitive role in developing Jewish identity from its earliest days, John J. Collins explains that regardless of genetics or land, it has long been true that one could become Jewish by observing the laws in the Torah, and that remains true in the modern day.^[247]

The Christian religion and its sacred book are connected and influence one another, but the significance of the written text has varied throughout history. For Christianity, holiness did not reside in the written text, or in any particular language, it resided in the Christ the text witnessed to. David M. Carr writes that this gave early Christianity a more 'flexible' view of the written texts.^[248]^: 279 Wilfred Cantwell Smith points out that "in the Islamic system, the Quran fulfills a function comparable to the role... played by the person of Jesus Christ, while a closer counterpart to Christian scriptures are the Islamic Hadith 'Traditions'."^[249]^: 133 For centuries the written text had less significance than the will of the church as represented by the Pope, since the church saw the text as having been created by the church. One cause of the Reformation was the perceived need to reorient Christianity around its early text as authoritative.^[250]^: 13 Some Protestant churches still focus on the idea of sola scriptura, which sees scripture as the only legitimate religious authority. Some denominations today support the use of the Bible as the only infallible source of Christian teaching. Others, though, advance the concept of prima scriptura in contrast, meaning scripture primarily or scripture mainly.^[af]^[ag]

In the 21st century, attitudes towards the significance of the Bible continue to differ. Roman Catholics, High Church Anglicans, Methodists and Eastern Orthodox Christians stress the harmony and importance of both the Bible and sacred tradition in combination. United Methodists see Scripture as the major factor in Christian doctrine, but they also emphasize the importance of tradition, experience, and reason. Lutherans teach that the Bible is the sole source for Christian doctrine.^[251] Muslims view the Bible as reflecting the true unfolding revelation from God; but revelation which had been corrupted or distorted (in Arabic: tahrif), and therefore necessitated correction by giving the Quran to the Islamic prophet Muhammad.^[ah] The Rastafari view the Bible as essential to their religion,^[253] while the Unitarian Universalists view it as "one of many important religious texts".^[254]

Versions and translations

An early German translation of the Bible by Martin Luther, whose translation of the text into the vernacular was highly influential in the development of Lutheranism and the Reformation

The original texts of the Tanakh were almost entirely written in Hebrew with about one per cent in Aramaic. The earliest translation of any Bible text is the Septuagint which translated the Hebrew into Greek.^[34] As the first translation of any biblical literature, the translation that became the Septuagint was an unparalleled event in the ancient world.^[255] This translation was made possible by a common Mediterranean culture where Semitism had been foundational to Greek culture.^[256] In the Talmud, Greek is the only language officially allowed for translation.^[120] The Targum Onkelos is the Aramaic translation of the Hebrew Bible believed to have been written in the second century CE.^[34] These texts attracted the work of various scholars, but a standardized text was not available before the 9th century.^[34]

There were different ancient versions of the Tanakh in Hebrew. These were copied and edited in three different locations producing slightly varying results. Masoretic scholars in Tiberias in ancient Palestine copied the ancient texts in Tiberian Hebrew. A copy was recovered from the "Cave of Elijah" (the synagogue of Aleppo in the Judean desert) and is therefore referred to as the Aleppo Codex which dates to around 920. This codex, which is over a thousand years old, was originally the oldest codex of the complete Tiberian Hebrew Bible.^[257] Babylonian masoretes had also copied the early texts, and the Tiberian and Babylonian were later combined, using the Aleppo Codex and additional writings, to form the Ben-Asher masoretic tradition which is the standardized Hebrew Bible of today. The Aleppo Codex is no longer the oldest complete manuscript because, during riots in 1947, the Aleppo Codex was removed from its location, and about 40% of it was subsequently lost. It must now rely on additional manuscripts, and as a result, the Aleppo Codex contains the most comprehensive collection of variant readings.^[35] The oldest complete version of the Masoretic tradition is the Leningrad Codex from 1008. It is the source for all modern Jewish and Christian translations.^[34]^[257]

Levidas writes that, "The Koine Greek New Testament is a non-translated work; most scholars agree on this – despite disagreement on the possibility that some passages may have appeared initially in Aramaic... It is written in the Koine Greek of the first century [CE]".^[258] Early Christians translated the New Testament into Old Syriac, Coptic, Ethiopic, and Latin, among other languages.^[50] The earliest Latin translation was the Old Latin text, or Vetus Latina, which, from internal evidence, seems to have been made by several authors over a period of time.^[259]^[260]

Pope Damasus I (366–383) commissioned Jerome to produce a reliable and consistent text by translating the original Greek and Hebrew texts into Latin. This translation became known as the Latin Vulgate Bible, in the 4th century CE (although Jerome expressed in his prologues to most deuterocanonical books that they were non-canonical).^[261]^[262] In 1546, at the Council of Trent, Jerome's Vulgate translation was declared by the Roman Catholic Church to be the only authentic and official Bible in the Latin Church.^[263] The Greek-speaking East continued to use the Septuagint translations of the Old Testament, and they had no need to translate the Greek New Testament.^[259]^[260] This contributed to the East-West Schism.^[53]

Many ancient translations coincide with the invention of the alphabet and the beginning of vernacular literature in those languages. According to British Academy professor N. Fernández Marcos, these early translations represent "pioneer works of enormous linguistic interest, as they represent the oldest documents we have for the study of these languages and literature".^[264]

Translations to English can be traced to the seventh century, Alfred the Great in the 9th century, the Toledo School of Translators in the 12th and 13th century, Roger Bacon (1220–1292), an English Franciscan friar of the 13th century, and multiple writers of the Renaissance.^[265] The Wycliffite Bible, which is "one of the most significant in the development of a written standard", dates from the late Middle English period.^[266] William Tyndale's translation of 1525 is seen by several scholars as having influenced the form of English Christian discourse as well as impacting the development of the English language itself.^[267] Martin Luther translated the New Testament into German in 1522, and both Testaments with Apocrypha in 1534, thereby contributing to the multiple wars of the Age of Reformation and Counter-Reformation. Important biblical translations of this period include the Polish Jakub Wujek Bible (Biblia Jakuba Wujka) from 1535, and the English King James/Authorized Version (1604–1611).^[268] The King James Version was the most widespread English Bible of all time, but it has largely been superseded by modern translations.^[54] Some New Testaments verses found to be later additions to the text are not included in modern English translations, despite appearing in older English translations such as the King James Version.

Historically significant translations of the Bible in English
Name	Abbreviation	Published^[ai]
Wycliffe Bible	WYC	1382
Tyndale Bible^[aj]	TYN	1526^[ak]
Geneva Bible	GNV	1560
Douay–Rheims Bible	DRB	1610^[al]
King James Version	KJV	1611
English Revised Version	RV	1885
Revised Standard Version	RSV	1952
New American Bible	NAB	1970
New International Version	NIV	1978
New King James Version	NKJV	1982
New Revised Standard Version	NRSV	1989
English Standard Version	ESV	2001

Some denominations have additional canonical texts beyond the Bible, including the Standard Works of the Latter Day Saints movement and Divine Principle in the Unification Church.

Nearly all modern English translations of the Old Testament are based on a single manuscript, the Leningrad Codex, copied in 1008 or 1009. It is a complete example of the Masoretic Text, and its published edition is used by the majority of scholars. The Aleppo Codex is the basis of the Hebrew University Bible Project in Jerusalem.^[35]

Since the Reformation era, Bible translations have been made into the common vernacular of many languages. The Bible continues to be translated to new languages, largely by Christian organizations such as Wycliffe Bible Translators, New Tribes Mission and Bible societies. Lamin Sanneh writes that tracing the impact on the local cultures of translating the Bible into local vernacular language shows it has produced "the movements of indigenization and cultural liberation".^[269] "The translated scripture ... has become the benchmark of awakening and renewal".^[210]

Bible translations, worldwide (as of September 2023^[update])^[270]
Number	Statistic
7,394	Approximate number of languages spoken in the world today
3,283	Number of translations into new languages in progress
1,264	Number of languages with some translated Bible portions
1,658	Number of languages with a translation of the New Testament
736	Number of languages with a full translation of the Bible (Protestant Canon)
3,658	Total number of languages with some Bible translation

Archaeological and historical research

Biblical archaeology is a subsection of archaeology that relates to and sheds light upon the Hebrew scriptures and the New Testament.^[271] It is used to help determine the lifestyle and practices of people living in biblical times.^[272] There are a wide range of interpretations in the field of biblical archaeology.^[273] One broad division includes biblical maximalism, which generally takes the view that most of the Old Testament or the Hebrew Bible is based on history although it is presented through the religious viewpoint of its time. According to historian Lester L. Grabbe, there are "few, if any" maximalists in mainstream scholarship.^[274] It is considered to be the extreme opposite of biblical minimalism which considers the Bible to be a purely post-exilic (5th century BCE and later) composition.^[275] According to Mary-Joan Leith, professor of religious studies, many minimalists have ignored evidence for the antiquity of the Hebrew language in the Bible, and few take archaeological evidence into consideration.^[276] Most biblical scholars and archaeologists fall somewhere on a spectrum between these two.^[277]^[274]

The biblical account of events of the Exodus from Egypt in the Torah, the migration to the Promised Land, and the period of Judges are sources of heated ongoing debate. There is an absence of evidence for the presence of Israel in Egypt from any Egyptian source, historical or archaeological.^[278] Yet, as William Dever points out, these biblical traditions were written long after the events they describe, and they are based in sources now lost and older oral traditions.^[279]

The Hebrew Bible/Old Testament, ancient non–biblical texts, and archaeology support the Babylonian captivity beginning around 586 BCE.^[280] Excavations in southern Judah show a pattern of destruction consistent with the Neo-Assyrian devastation of Judah at the end of the eighth century BCE and 2 Kings 18:13.^[281] In 1993, at Tel Dan, archaeologist Avraham Biran unearthed a fragmentary Aramaic inscription, the Tel Dan stele, dated to the late ninth or early eighth century that mentions a "king of Israel" as well as a "house of David" (bet David). This shows David could not be a late sixth-century invention, and implies that Judah's kings traced their lineage back to someone named David.^[282] However, there is no current archaeological evidence for the existence of King David and Solomon or the First Temple as far back as the tenth century BCE where the Bible places them.^[283]

In the nineteenth and early twentieth century, surveys demonstrated that Acts of the Apostles (Acts) scholarship was divided into two traditions, "a conservative (largely British) tradition which had great confidence in the historicity of Acts and a less conservative (largely German) tradition which had very little confidence in the historicity of Acts". Subsequent surveys show that little has changed.^[284] Author Thomas E. Phillips writes that "In this two-century-long debate over the historicity of Acts and its underlying traditions, only one assumption seemed to be shared by all: Acts was intended to be read as history".^[285] This too is now being debated by scholars as: what genre does Acts actually belong to?^[285] There is a growing consensus, however, that the question of genre is unsolvable and would not, in any case, solve the issue of historicity: "Is Acts history or fiction? In the eyes of most scholars, it is history – but not the kind of history that precludes fiction." says Phillips.^[286]

Biblical criticism

Biblical criticism refers to the analytical investigation of the Bible as a text, and addresses questions such as history, authorship, dates of composition, and authorial intention. It is not the same as criticism of the Bible, which is an assertion against the Bible being a source of information or ethical guidance, nor is it criticism of possible translation errors.^[287]

Biblical criticism made study of the Bible secularized, scholarly, and more democratic, while it also permanently altered the way people understood the Bible.^[288] The Bible is no longer thought of solely as a religious artefact, and its interpretation is no longer restricted to the community of believers.^[289] Michael Fishbane writes, "There are those who regard the desacralization of the Bible as the fortunate condition for" the development of the modern world.^[290] For many, biblical criticism "released a host of threats" to the Christian faith. For others biblical criticism "proved to be a failure, due principally to the assumption that diachronic, linear research could master any and all of the questions and problems attendant on interpretation".^[291] Still others believed that biblical criticism, "shorn of its unwarranted arrogance," could be a reliable source of interpretation.^[291] Michael Fishbane compares biblical criticism to Job, a prophet who destroyed "self-serving visions for the sake of a more honest crossing from the divine textus to the human one".^[289] Or as Rogerson says: biblical criticism has been liberating for those who want their faith "intelligently grounded and intellectually honest".^[292]

Bible museums

The Dunham Bible Museum is located at Houston Baptist University in Houston, Texas. It is known for its collection of rare Bibles from around the world and for having many different Bibles of various languages.^[293]
The Museum of the Bible opened in Washington, D.C. in November 2017.^[294] The museum states that its intent is to "share the historical relevance and significance of the sacred scriptures in a nonsectarian way", but this has been questioned.^[295]^[296]
The Bible Museum in St Arnaud, Victoria in Australia opened in 2009.^[297] As of 2020^[update], it is closed for relocation.^[298]
There is a Bible Museum at The Great Passion Play in Eureka Springs, Arkansas.^[299]^[300]
The Bible Museum on the Square in Collierville, Tennessee opened in 1997.^[301]^[302]
Biedenharn Museum and Gardens in Monroe, Louisiana includes a Bible Museum.^[303]

Illustrations

The grandest medieval Bibles were illuminated manuscripts in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration, such as decorated initials, borders (marginalia) and miniature illustrations. Up to the 12th century, most manuscripts were produced in monasteries in order to add to the library or after receiving a commission from a wealthy patron. Larger monasteries often contained separate areas for the monks who specialized in the production of manuscripts called a scriptorium, where "separate little rooms were assigned to book copying; they were situated in such a way that each scribe had to himself a window open to the cloister walk."^[304] By the 14th century, the cloisters of monks writing in the scriptorium started to employ laybrothers from the urban scriptoria, especially in Paris, Rome and the Netherlands.^[305] Demand for manuscripts grew to an extent that the Monastic libraries were unable to meet with the demand, and began employing secular scribes and illuminators.^[306] These individuals often lived close to the monastery and, in certain instances, dressed as monks whenever they entered the monastery, but were allowed to leave at the end of the day.^[307] A notable example of an illuminated manuscript is the Book of Kells, produced circa the year 800 containing the four Gospels of the New Testament together with various prefatory texts and tables.

The manuscript was "sent to the rubricator, who added (in red or other colours) the titles, headlines, the initials of chapters and sections, the notes and so on; and then – if the book was to be illustrated – it was sent to the illuminator."^[308] In the case of manuscripts that were sold commercially, the writing would "undoubtedly have been discussed initially between the patron and the scribe (or the scribe's agent,) but by the time that the written gathering were sent off to the illuminator there was no longer any scope for innovation."^[309]

Bible from 1150, from Scriptorium de Chartres, Christ with angels
Blanche of Castile and Louis IX of France Bible, 13th century
Maciejowski Bible, Leaf 37, the 3rd image, Abner (in the centre in green) sends Michal back to David.
Jephthah's daughter laments – Maciejowski Bible (France, c. 1250)
Coloured version of the Whore of Babylon illustration from Martin Luther's 1534 translation of the Bible
An Armenian Bible, 17th century, illuminated by Malnazar
Fleeing Sodom and Gomorrah, Foster Bible, 19th century
Jonah being swallowed by the fish, Kennicott Bible, 1476

Gallery

Bibles
An old Bible from a Greek monastery
The Imperial Bible, or Vienna Coronation Gospels from Wien, Austria, c. 1500
The Kennicott Bible in 1476
A Baroque Bible
The Bible used by Abraham Lincoln for his oath of office during his first inaugural in 1861
American Civil War-era illustrated Bible
A miniature Bible
An 1866 Victorian Bible
Shelves of the Bizzell Bible Collection at Bizzell Memorial Library
Leonardo da Vinci's Annunciation (c. 1472–1475), showing the Virgin Mary reading the Bible

Notes

^ Jump up to: ^a ^b "[...] die griechische Bibelübersetzung, die einem innerjüdischen Bedürfnis entsprang [...] [von den] Rabbinen zuerst gerühmt (.) Später jedoch, als manche ungenaue Übertragung des hebräischen Textes in der Septuaginta und Übersetzungsfehler die Grundlage für hellenistische Irrlehren abgaben, lehte man die Septuaginta ab." Homolka, Jacob & Chorin 1999, pp. 43ff, Bd.3
^ Although a paucity of extant source material makes it impossible to be certain that the earliest Samaritans also rejected the other books of the Tanakh, the 3rd-century church father Origen confirms that the Samaritans in his day "receive[d] the books of Moses alone." Schaff 1885, Chapter XLIX(Commentary on John 13:26)
^ "Each king is judged either good or bad in black-and-white terms, according to whether or not he "did right" or "did evil" in the sight of the Lord. This evaluation is not reflective of the well-being of the nation, of the king's success or failure in war, or of the moral climate of the times, but rather the state of cultic worship during his reign. Those kings who shun idolatry and enact religious reforms are singled out for praise, and those who encourage pagan practices are denounced." Savran 1987, p. 146
^ "The fight against Baal was initiated by the prophets" Kaufmann 1956a, p. 54
^ "The immediate occasion of the rise of the new prophecy was the political and social ruin caused by the wars with Israel's northerly neighbour, Aram, which continued for more than a century. They raged intensely during the reign of Ahab, and did not end until the time of Jeroboam II (784–744). While the nation as a whole was impoverished, a few – apparently of the royal officialdom – grew wealthy as a result of the national calamity. Many of the people were compelled to sell their houses and lands, with the result that a sharp social cleavage arose: on the one hand a mass of propertyless indigents, on the other a small circle of the rich. A series of disasters struck the nation – drought, famine, plagues, death and captivity (Amos 4: 6–11), but the greatest disaster of all was the social disintegration due to the cleavage between the poor masses and the wealthy, dissolute upper class. The decay affected both Judah and Israel ... High minded men were appalled at this development. Was this the people whom YHWH had brought out of Egypt, to whom He had given the land and a law of justice and right? it seemed as if the land was about to be inherited by the rich, who would squander its substance in drunken revelry. it was this dissolution that brought the prophetic denunciations to white heat." Kaufmann 1956b, pp. 57–58
^ "What manner of man is the prophet? A student of philosophy who runs from the discourses of the great metaphysicians to the orations of the prophets may feel as if he were going from the realm of the sublime to an area of trivialities. Instead of dealing with the timeless issues of being and becoming, of matter and form, of definitions and demonstrations, he is thrown into orations about widows and orphans, about the corruption of judges and affairs of the market place. Instead of showing us a way through the elegant mansions of the mind, the prophets take us to the slums. The world is a proud place, full of beauty, but the prophets are scandalized, and rave as if the whole world were a slum. They make much ado about paltry things, lavishing excessive language upon trifling subjects. What if somewhere in ancient Palestine poor people have not been treated properly by the rich? .... Indeed, the sorts of crimes and even the amount of delinquency that fill the prophets of Israel with dismay do not go beyond that which we regard as normal, as typical ingredients of social dynamics. To us a single act of injustice – cheating in business, exploitation of the poor – is slight; to the prophets, a disaster. To us an injustice is injurious to the welfare of the people; to the prophets it is a deathblow to existence; to us an episode; to them, a catastrophe, a threat to the world." Heschel 2001, pp. 3–4
^ "Samuel is thus a work of national self-criticism. It recognizes that Israel would not have survived, either politically or culturally, without the steadying presence of a dynastic royal house. But it makes both that house and its subjects answerable to firm standards of prophetic justice – not those of cult prophets or professional ecstatics, but of morally upright prophetic leaders in the tradition of Moses, Joshua, Deborah, Gideon, and others ..." Rosenberg 1987, p. 141
^ Originally, Ezra and Nehemiah were one book, which were divided in later traditions.
^ According to the Jewish Encyclopedia: "The translation, which shows at times a peculiar ignorance of Hebrew usage, was evidently made from a codex which differed widely in places from the text crystallized by the Masorah."^[121]
^ "Two things, however, rendered the Septuagint unwelcome in the long run to the Jews. Its divergence from the accepted text (afterward called the Masoretic) was too evident; and it therefore could not serve as a basis for theological discussion or for homiletic interpretation. This distrust was accentuated by the fact that it had been adopted as Sacred Scripture by the new faith [Christianity] [...] In course of time it came to be the canonical Greek Bible [...] It became part of the Bible of the Christian Church."^[121]
^ Mishnah Sotah (7:2–4 and 8:1), among many others, discusses the sacredness of Hebrew, as opposed to Aramaic or Greek. This is comparable to the authority claimed for the original Arabic Koran according to Islamic teaching. As a result of this teaching, translations of the Torah into Koine Greek by early Jewish Rabbis have survived as rare fragments only.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c Even though they were not placed on the same level as the canonical books, still they were useful for instruction . ... These – and others that total fourteen or fifteen altogether – are the books known as the Apocrypha. Williams 1970, p. 141
^ "English Bibles were patterned after those of the Continental Reformers by having the Apocrypha set off from the rest of the OT. Coverdale (1535) called them "Apocrypha". All English Bibles prior to 1629 contained the Apocrypha. Matthew's Bible (1537), the Great Bible (1539), the Geneva Bible (1560), the Bishop's Bible (1568), and the King James Bible (1611) contained the Apocrypha. Soon after the publication of the KJV, however, the English Bibles began to drop the Apocrypha and eventually they disappeared entirely. The first English Bible to be printed in America (1782–83) lacked the Apocrypha. In 1826 the British and Foreign Bible Society decided to no longer print them. Today the trend is in the opposite direction, and English Bibles with the Apocrypha are becoming more popular again." Ewert 2010, p. 104
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c "Fourteen books and parts of books are considered Apocryphal by Protestants. Three of these are recognized by Roman Catholics also as Apocryphal."Wells 1911, p. 41
^ the Canon of Trent:
But if anyone receive not, as sacred and canonical, the said books entire with all their parts, as they have been used to be read in the Catholic Church, and as they are contained in the old Latin vulgate edition; and knowingly and deliberately contemn the traditions aforesaid; let him be anathema.
— Decretum de Canonicis Scripturis, Council of Trent, 8 April 1546
^ "In all places where a reading from the deuterocanonical books (The Apocrypha) is listed, an alternate reading from the canonical Scriptures has also been provided."^[146]
^ The canon of the original Old Greek LXX is disputed. This table reflects the canon of the Old Testament as used currently in Orthodoxy.
^ Βασιλειῶν (Basileiōn) is the genitive plural of Βασιλεῖα (Basileia).
^ That is, Things set aside from Ἔσδρας Αʹ.
^ Also called Τωβείτ or Τωβίθ in some sources.
^ Not in Orthodox Canon, but originally included in the Septuagint.^[150]
^ Obdiou is genitive from "The vision of Obdias", which opens the book.
^ Originally placed after 3 Maccabees and before Psalms, but placed in an appendix of the Orthodox Canon.
^ "The New Testament was written in Koine Greek, the Greek of daily conversation. The fact that from the first all the New Testament writings were written in Greek is conclusively demonstrated by their citations from the Old Testament ..." Aland & Aland 1995, p. 52
^ "How came the twenty-seven books of the New Testament to be gathered together and made authoritative Christian scripture? 1. All the New Testament books were originally written in Greek. On the face of it this may surprise us." Hunter 1972, p. 9
^ "This is the language of the New Testament. By the time of Jesus the Romans had become the dominant military and political force, but the Greek language remained the 'common language' of the eastern Mediterranean and beyond, and Greek ..." Duff & Wenham 2005, p. xxv
^ "By far the most predominant element in the language of the New Testament is the Greek of common speech which was disseminated in the East by the Macedonian conquest, in the form which it had gradually assumed under the wider development ..." Blass & Thackeray 2008, p. 2
^ "In this short overview of the Greek language of the New Testament we will focus on those topics that are of greatest importance for the average reader, that is, those with important ..." Aune 2010, p. 61
^ "The Peshitta Old Testament was translated directly from the original Hebrew text, and the Peshitta New Testament directly from the original Greek" Brock 1988, p. 13
^ "Printed editions of the Peshitta frequently contain these books in order to fill the gaps. D. Harklean Version. The Harklean version is connected with the labours of Thomas of Harqel. When thousands were fleeing Khosrou's invading armies, ..." Bromiley 1995, p. 976
^ The Council of Trent confirmed the identical list/canon of sacred scriptures already anciently approved by the Synod of Hippo (Synod of 393), Council of Carthage, 28 August 397, and Council of Florence, 4 February 1442;^[170] – Bull of Union with the Copts seventh paragraph down.
^ "The United Methodists see Scripture as the primary source and criterion for Christian doctrine. They emphasize the importance of tradition, experience, and reason for Christian doctrine. Lutherans teach that the Bible is the sole source for Christian doctrine. The truths of Scripture do not need to be authenticated by tradition, human experience, or reason. Scripture is self authenticating and is true in and of itself."^[251]
^ "historically Anglicans have adopted what could be called a prima Scriptura position." Humphrey 2013, p. 16
^ "…they [from the Children of Israel] pervert words from their meanings, and have forgotten a part of what they were reminded …" Quran 5:18.^[252]
^ That is, the first year of a full translation (irrespective of containing the Apocrypha) having been published.
^ William Tyndale was stopped from translating all the books of the Old Testament due to his arrest in May 1535 and subsequent execution in October 1536.
^ The first complete publication of William Tyndale's New Testament took place in 1526.
^ The Douay–Rheims Bible was published in multiple volumes. The last volume of the Old Testament was published in 1610.

References

^ "Definition of Bible | Dictionary.com". www.dictionary.com. Archived from the original on 15 October 2006.
^ Bandstra 2009, pp. 7; Gravett et al. 2008, p. xv.
^ Beekes 2009, pp. 246–247.
^ Brake 2008, p. 29.
^ Hamilton, Mark. "From Hebrew Bible To Christian Bible | From Jesus To Christ – The First Christians | Frontline | PBS". www.pbs.org. Archived from the original on 14 June 2018.
^ Bruce 1988, p. 214.
^ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. "A Greek-English Lexicon, βιβλίον". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Archived from the original on 18 November 2019.
^ "The Catholic Encyclopedia". Newadvent.org. 1907. Archived from the original on 13 June 2010. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
^ Carr, David M. The formation of the Hebrew Bible: A new reconstruction. Oxford University Press, 2011. p. 5
^ Swenson 2021, p. 12; Rogerson 2005, p. 21; Riches 2000, ch. 2.
^ Riches 2000, p. 9.
^ Lim 2017, pp. 7, 47.
^ Hendel & Joosten 2018, pp. ix, 98–99, 101, 104, 106.
^ Lim 2017, pp. 38, 47; Ulrich 2013, pp. 103–104; VanderKam & Flint 2013, ch. 5; Brown 2010, ch. 3(A); Harris & Platzner 2008, p. 22.
^ Wegner 2006, p. 59.
^ Wegner 2006, p. 60.
^ Wegner 2006, p. 61.
^ VanderKam & Flint 2013, pp. 88–90.
^ Wegner 2006, pp. 62–63.
^ Wegner 2006, pp. 64–65.
^ Hayes 2012, p. 9.
^ Hayes 2012, pp. 9–10.
^ Lim 2017, p. 40.
^ The Old Testament in Greek Archived 20 May 2023 at the Wayback Machine – Greek manuscripts. British Library. Retrieved 20 May 2023.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Segal 2010, p. 363.
^ Dorival, Harl & Munnich 1988, p. 111.
^ Lavidas 2021, p. 30.
^ Lim 2017, pp. 45–46, 58; Hayes 2012, ch. 1; Brown 2010, Intro.; Carr 2010, p. 250; Bandstra 2009, pp. 8, 480; Gravett et al. 2008, p. 47; Harris & Platzner 2008, p. 27; Riches 2000, ch. 3.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Dines, Jennifer (2004). The Septuagint. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-567-60152-0.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Hauser, Watson & Kaufman 2003, pp. 30–31.
^ Wegner 1999, p. 172.
^ Swenson 2021, p. 29.
^ Phillips 2016, pp. 288–291.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Lavidas 2021, p. 75.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d VanderKam & Flint 2013, p. 87.
^ Lim 2017, pp. 46–49; Ulrich 2013, pp. 95–104; VanderKam & Flint 2013, ch. 5; Carr 2010, p. 8; Bandstra 2009, p. 482; Gravett et al. 2008, pp. 47–49; Harris & Platzner 2008, pp. 23–28.
^ VanderKam & Flint 2013, p. 91.
^ Gaster 1908, p. 166.
^ Hauser, Watson & Kaufman 2003, pp. 31–32.
^ Orsini & Clarysse 2012, p. 470.
^ Lim 2017, pp. 45–46; Brown 2010, Intro. and ch. 1; Carr 2010, p. 17; Bandstra 2009, pp. 7, 484; Riches 2000, chs. 2 and 3.
^ Gurry 2016, p. 117.
^ Rezetko & Young 2014, p. 164.
^ Wegner 2006, p. 300.
^ Wallace 2009, p. 88.
^ Wegner 2006, pp. 40–41, 300–301.
^ Mowry 1944, pp. 76, 84, 85.
^ Mowry 1944, p. 85.
^ Brown 1997, p. 436.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Lavidas 2021, p. 29.
^ Ehrman, Bart D. Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why (New York: HarperCollins, 2005) p. 72.
^ Parker 2013, pp. 412–420, 430–432; Brown 2010, ch. 3(A).
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Lim 2017, p. 40; Hayes 2012, ch. 1; Brown 2010, Intro.; Carr 2010, pp. 3–5; Bandstra 2009, pp. 7–8, 480–481; Gravett et al. 2008, p. xv; Harris & Platzner 2008, pp. 3–4, 28, 371; Riches 2000, ch. 3.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Lim 2017, pp. 40, 46, 49, 58–59; Hayes 2012, ch. 1; Brown 2010, Intro.; Carr 2010, pp. 3–5; Bandstra 2009, pp. 7–8, 480–481; Gravett et al. 2008, pp. xv, 49; Harris & Platzner 2008, pp. 3–4, 28, 31–32, 371; Riches 2000, ch. 3.
^ Riches 2000, pp. 7–8.
^ Barton 2019, p. 15.
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^ Black 1994, p. 24.
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^ Tov 2001, p. 18.
^ "The Damascus Keters". National Library of Israel. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 1 July 2020.
^ Carr 2011, pp. 5–7.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c Black 1994, p. 60.
^ Carr 2011, pp. 5–7, 18, 24, 29, 42, 55, 61, 145, 167.
^ Royce 2013, pp. 461–464, 468, 470–473.
^ Wegner 2006, p. 25.
^ MacHaffie, Barbara J. (1992). Her Story Women in Christian Tradition. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-1-4514-0402-9.
^ Harper 2013, pp. 1–14, 84–86, 88.
^ Henry Chadwick, The Early Church, ISBN 978-0-14-023199-1
^ Grudem, Wayne (2018). Christian Ethics: An Introduction to Biblical Moral Reasoning. Crossway. ISBN 978-1-4335-4965-6.
^ Praet, Danny (1992–1993). "Explaining the Christianization of the Roman Empire. Older theories and recent developments". Sacris Erudiri. Jaarboek voor Godsdienstgeschiedenis. A Journal on the Inheritance of Early and Medieval Christianity. 23: 5–119.
^ Northcott, Michael S. (1996). Clark, Stephen R. L. (ed.). The Environment and Christian Ethics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-57631-4.
^ Hargaden, Kevin (2018). Theological Ethics in a Neoliberal Age: Confronting the Christian Problem with Wealth. Wipf and Stock. ISBN 978-1-5326-5500-5.
^ Cronin, Kieran (1992). Rights and Christian ethics. Cambridge University Press. p. 223. ISBN 978-0-521-41889-8.
^ Gericke 2012, p. 207.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Gericke 2012, p. 210.
^ Mittleman 2012, pp. 1, 2.
^ Barton 2007, pp. 1–3.
^ Barton 2019, p. 14.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Barton 2019, p. 40.
^ Carmy & Schatz 2003, pp. 13–14.
^ Gericke 2012, p. 209.
^ Fox 2007, p. 78.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Barton 2019, p. 3.
^ Mittleman 2012, p. 17.
^ Brunner 2002, p. 494.
^ Beach 1988, pp. 25–26.
^ Barton 2003, pp. 48–50.
^ Walzer 2012, p. 200.
^ Souryal 2015, p. xx.
^ Carmy & Schatz 2003, pp. 13, 14.
^ Tov, Professor Emmanuel. "The Bible and the Masoretic Text". The Torah.com. Archived from the original on 25 May 2022. Retrieved 3 July 2022.
^ Metzger & Katz 2010, p. 651, footnote 1.
^ Pace 2016, p. 354.
^ Ezra 4:8–6:18 and 7:12–26, Jeremiah 10:11, Daniel 2:4–7:28
^ Driver, Godfrey. "Introduction to the Old Testament". www.bible-researcher.com. Archived from the original on 9 November 2009. Retrieved 30 November 2009.
^ Barnstone 2009, p. 647.
^ Robinson 2006, p. 97.
^ Cross & Livingstone 2005, p. 1072.
^ Nahkola 2007, pp. vii, xvi, 197, 204, 216–217.
^ Baden 2012, p. 13.
^ Greifenhagen 2003, p. 206.
^ Greifenhagen 2003, pp. 206–207.
^ Newsom 2004, p. 26.
^ Greifenhagen 2003, p. 224 n. 49.
^ Rossel 2007, p. 355.
^ 1 Kings.18:24; 1 Kings.18:37–39
^ Henshaw 1963, p. 20.
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^ Kraus 1993, p. 12.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Coogan 2009, p. 5.
^ Young 2013, p. 23.
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^ Phillips 2016, pp. 300–301.
^ Henshaw 1963, pp. 16–17.
^ Lightfoot 2003, pp. 154–155.
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^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Fitzmeyer 1992, p. 41.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Marcos 2000, p. 21.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b "Bible Translations – The Septuagint". JewishEncyclopedia.com. Archived from the original on 15 March 2012. Retrieved 10 February 2012.
^ Pace 2016, pp. 349–350.
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^ Blocher 2004, p. 86.
^ Gerber 1994, pp. 43–46.
^ "St. Jerome, Commentary on Daniel (1958) pp. 15–157". www.tertullian.org. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Retrieved 2 February 2022.
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^ Fitzmeyer 1992, pp. 14, 52.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Metzger 1972, p. 4.
^ Harris 1985, p. vii, 197–221, 223–243.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c Stuckenbruck & Erho 2011, pp. 259, 267.
^ Fahlbusch & Bromiley 2004, p. 411.
^ "The Book of Enoch and The Secrets of Enoch". reluctant-messenger.com. Archived from the original on 8 June 2014.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c Stuckenbruck & Erho 2011, p. 261.
^ Johnson 2012, p. 374.
^ Kelly 2000, pp. 31–32.
^ Wright 2005, p. 3.
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^ Catechism of the Catholic Church (2nd ed.). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2019. Paragraph 120.
^ Pace 2016, p. 349.
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^ Pace 2016, p. 350.
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^ McDonald 2021, p. 43.
^ "The Revised Common Lectionary" (PDF). Consultation on Common Texts. 1992. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 July 2015. Retrieved 19 August 2015.
^ Campbell 2000, pp. 336–337.
^ "NETS: Electronic Edition". Ccat.sas.upenn.edu. 11 February 2011. Archived from the original on 29 July 2011. Retrieved 13 August 2012.
^ McLay 2003, pp. 3–4.
^ "NETS: Electronic Edition". ccat.sas.upenn.edu. Archived from the original on 29 July 2011.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c Erbes, Johann E. (1984). "The Aramaic New Testament: Estrangelo Script: Based on the Peshitta and Harklean Versions". digitalcommons.andrews.edu. American Christian Press. pp. 259–260. Archived from the original on 12 June 2022. Retrieved 10 April 2022.
^ Wallace 1996, pp. 25–29.
^ Barton 1998, pp. 3, 4, 7.
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^ Barton 1998, p. 3.
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^ Rüger 1989, p. 302.
^ "Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent". www.bible-researcher.com. Archived from the original on 5 August 2011.
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^ Jump up to: ^a ^b "The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church". Ethiopianorthodox.org. Archived from the original on 5 November 2010. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
^ Van Liere, Frans (2014). An Introduction to the Medieval Bible. Cambridge University Press. pp. 68–69. ISBN 9780521865784.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Ehrman, Bart D. (2003). Lost Christianities: Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew. Oxford University Press. pp. 230–231. ISBN 9780199756681. Archived from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved 20 May 2023.
^ "The Canonization of Scripture | Coptic Orthodox Diocese of Los Angeles". Archived from the original on 5 June 2023. Retrieved 2 April 2022.
^ [1] Archived 27 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine Manuscripts and the Text of the New Testament: An Introduction for English Readers by Keith Elliott, Ian Moir – Continuum International Publishing Group, 2000, p. 9
^ Lim 2017, p. 47; Ulrich 2013, pp. 103–104; VanderKam & Flint 2013, ch. 5; Brown 2010, ch. 3(A); Harris & Platzner 2008, p. 22.
^ Soulen & Soulen 2001, p. 204.
^ Riches 2000, ch. 1.
^ Ryken, Leland. "How We Got the Best-Selling Book of All Time". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 8 May 2020. Retrieved 9 December 2015.
^ Burnside, Jonathan (2011). God, Justice, and Society: Aspects of Law and Legality in the Bible. Oxford University Press. p. XXVI. ISBN 978-0-19-975921-7.
^ V. Reid, Patrick (1987). Readings in Western Religious Thought: The ancient world. Paulist Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-8091-2850-1.
^ Riches 2000, chs. 1 and 4.
^ G. Koenig, Harold (2009). Religion and Spirituality in Psychiatry. Cambridge University Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-521-88952-0. The Bible is the most globally influential and widely read book ever written. ... it has been a major influence on the behavior, laws, customs, education, art, literature, and morality of Western civilization.
^ Vlach, Michael J. (2010). Has the Church Replaced Israel? A Theological Evaluation. B&H Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8054-4972-3.
^ Clouse, Robert G. (1986). War: Four Christian Views. Winona Lake, Indiana: BMH Books.
^ Hunter, A. G. (2003). Bekkencamp, Jonneke; Sherwood, Yvonne (eds.). Denominating Amalek: Racist stereotyping in the Bible and the Justification of Discrimination", in Sanctified aggression: legacies of biblical and post biblical vocabularies of violence. Continuum Internatio Publishing Group. pp. 92–108.
^ Collins, John J. (2004). Does the Bible justify violence?. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-0-8006-3689-0.
^ Glick, Leonard B., "Religion and Genocide", in The Widening circle of genocide, Alan L. Berger (Ed). Transaction Publishers, 1994, p. 46.
^ Masalha, Nur, The Bible and Zionism: invented traditions, archaeology and post-colonialism in Palestine-Israel, Volume 1, Zed Books, 2007, pp. 273–276
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Chalk, Frank Robert; Jonassohn, Kurt (1990). The History and Sociology of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. pp. 3, 23–27. ISBN 978-0-300-04445-4.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Lynch, Matthew (2020). Portraying Violence in the Hebrew Bible: A Literary and Cultural Study. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-49435-9.
^ Trible, Phyllis (1984). Texts of Terror: Literary-feminist Readings of Biblical Narratives. Fortress Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-1-4514-1618-3.
^ Riches 2000, p. 134.
^ Ellul, Jacques (2 June 2011). The Subversion of Christianity. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN 978-1-60608-974-3 – via Google Books.
^ Ellul, Jacques, The Subversion of Christianity, Eerdman's Publishing Co., 1984, pp. 116, 123
^ Scribner, Robert W.; Grell, Ole Peter; Scribner, Bob, eds. (2002). Tolerance and Intolerance in the European Reformation. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-89412-8.
^ Powery, Emerson B. "The Bible and Social Reform: Musings of a Biblical Scholar." The Bible in the American Experience 2 (2020): 255.
^ Unterman, Jeremiah. Justice for All: How the Jewish Bible Revolutionized Ethics. U of Nebraska Press, 2017. pp. 23–25
^ Marshall, Christopher (1999). ""A Little lower than the Angels" Human rights in the biblical tradition". In Atkin, Bill; Evans, Katrine (eds.). Human Rights and the Common Good: Christian Perspectives. Wellington, New Zealand: Victoria University Press. ISBN 978-0-86473-362-7.
^ Gönenç, Levent (2002). Prospects for Constitutionalism in Post-Communist Countries. The Netherlands: Kluwer Law International. p. 218. ISBN 978-90-411-1836-3.
^ Kim, David; Kaul, Susanne, eds. (2015). Imagining Human Rights. Berlin: de Gruyter. pp. 13–17. ISBN 978-3-11-037619-7.
^ Lockton, Harwood A. "When Doing Good is Not Good Enough: Justice and Advocacy." (2014). p. 130
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Bullough, Vern L., and Bonnie Bullough. The care of the sick: The emergence of modern nursing. Routledge, 2021. p. 28
^ Crislip 2005, p. 3.
^ Crislip 2005, pp. 68–69, 99.
^ Schmidt, Charles (1889). "Chapter Five: The Poor and Unfortunate". The Social Results of Early Christianity. London: William Isbister Ltd. pp. 245–256. ISBN 978-0-7905-3105-2.
^ Models for Christian Higher Education: Strategies for Survival and Success in the Twenty-First Century. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. 1997. p. 290. ISBN 978-0-8028-4121-6. Retrieved 18 October 2007. Wesleyan institutions, whether hospitals, orphanages, soup kitchens, or schools, historically were begun with the spirit to serve all people and to transform society.
^ Teasdale, Mark R. (2014). Methodist Evangelism, American Salvation: The Home Missions of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 1860–1920. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 203. ISBN 978-1-62032-916-0. The new view of evangelism called for the denomination to undertake two new forms of activities: humanitarian aid and social witness. Humanitarian aid went beyond the individual help that many home missionaries were already providing to people within their care. It involved creating new structures that would augment the political, economic, and social systems so that those systems might be more humane. It included the establishment of Methodist hospitals in all the major cities in the United States. These hospitals were required to provide the best treatment possible free of charge to all who needed it, and were often staffed by deaconesses who trained as nurses. Homes for the aged and orphanages were also part of this work.
^ Geoffrey Blainey; A Short History of Christianity; Penguin Viking; 2011
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Sanneh & McClymond 2016, p. 279.
^ Harper 2013, pp. 14–18.
^ Langlands, Rebecca (2006). Sexual Morality in Ancient Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85943-1.
^ Harper, Kyle (2013). From Shame to Sin: The Christian Transformation of Sexual Morality in Late Antiquity. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-07277-0.
^ Wilken, Robert L. (2003). The Spirit of Early Christian Thought. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 291. ISBN 978-0-300-10598-8.
^ Ross, James F., "Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae (c. 1273), Christian Wisdom Explained Philosophically", in The Classics of Western Philosophy: A Reader's Guide, (eds.) Jorge J. E. Gracia, Gregory M. Reichberg, Bernard N. Schumacher (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2003), p. 165. [2]
^ Boffetti, Jason (November 2001). "Tolkien's Catholic Imagination". Crisis Magazine. Morley Publishing Group. Archived from the original on 21 August 2006.
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^ "Art: Representation of Biblical Women | Jewish Women's Archive". Archived from the original on 16 October 2020. Retrieved 19 May 2022.
^ Apostolos-Cappadona, Diane (July 2016). "Women in Religious Art". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion. 1. Oxford Research Encyclopedias. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.208. ISBN 978-0-19-934037-8.
^ Warsh, Cheryl Krasnick (2006). Children's Health Issues in Historical Perspective. Veronica Strong-Boag. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. p. 315. ISBN 978-0-88920-912-1. ... From Fleming's perspective, the transition to Christianity required a good dose of personal and public hygiene ...
^ E. Clark, Mary (2006). Contemporary Biology: Concepts and Implications. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-7216-2597-3.
^ "A hose: the strange device next to every Finnish toilet". Big in Finland. Curiosities. 8 July 2014. Archived from the original on 10 May 2022. Retrieved 21 May 2022.
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^ International Council on Biblical Inerrancy (1978). "The Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy" (PDF). Dallas Theological Seminary Archives. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 April 2008.
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^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c Geller, Stephen (2014). Sacred Enigmas: Literary Religion in the Hebrew Bible (reprint ed.). Routledge. pp. abstract. ISBN 978-1-317-79901-6.
^ Banbaji, Amir. "Conflicted Anagoge: The Renewal of Jewish Textuality in Haskalah Rhetoric." Jewish Social Studies 26.2 (2021): 126–169.
^ Barton 2019, p. 4.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d Horsley, Richard A.; Draper, Jonathan A.; Foley, John Miles; Kelber, Werner H., eds. (2011). Performing the Gospel: Orality, Memory, and Mark. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-1-4514-1166-9.
^ Collins, John J. (2017). The Invention of Judaism: Torah and Jewish Identity from Deuteronomy to Paul (reprint ed.). Univ of California Press. pp. 17–19. ISBN 978-0-520-29412-7.
^ Carr, David M. (2005). Writing on the Tablet of the Heart: Origins of Scripture and Literature. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-534669-5.
^ Smith, Wilfred Cantwell (1971). "The Study of Religion and the Study of the Bible". Journal of the American Academy of Religion. 39 (2). Oxford University Press: 131–140. doi:10.1093/jaarel/XXXIX.2.131. ISSN 0002-7189. JSTOR 1461797. Archived from the original on 30 June 2022. Retrieved 30 June 2022.
^ Barrett, Matthew. God's Word Alone – The Authority of Scripture: What the Reformers Taught... and Why It Still Matters. Zondervan Academic, 2016.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b "Methodist Beliefs: In what ways are Lutherans different from United Methodists?". Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. 2014. Archived from the original on 22 May 2014. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
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^ Price 2009, p. 171.
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^ "2023 Global Scripture Access". Archived from the original on 13 October 2020. Retrieved 14 October 2020.
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^ Fonseca 1996, p. 249.
^ Diringer 2013, p. 208.
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^ De Hamel 1992, p. 60.

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Goshen-Gottstein, M. H. (1979). "The Aleppo Codex and the Rise of the Massoretic Bible Text". The Biblical Archaeologist. 42 (3). University of Chicago Press: 145–163. doi:10.2307/3209386. JSTOR 3209386. S2CID 188037600.
Grabbe, Lester L. (23 February 2017). Ancient Israel: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It?: Revised Edition. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-567-67044-1.
Gravett, Sandra L.; Bohmbach, Karla G.; Greifenhagen, F. V.; Polaski, Donald C. (2008). An introduction to the Hebrew Bible: a thematic approach. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-23030-2. OCLC 196303211.
Greifenhagen, Franz V. (2003). Egypt on the Pentateuch's Ideological Map. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0-567-39136-0.
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Hayes, Christine Elizabeth (2012). Introduction to the Bible. Open Yale Courses. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-1-283-65655-9. OCLC 817828470.
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Lightfoot, Neil R. (July 2003). How We Got the Bible. Baker Books. ISBN 978-0-8010-1252-5.
Marcos, Natalio Fernández (2000). The Septuagint in context : introduction to the Greek version of the Bible. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11574-3.
Mazar, Amihai (2003). "Remarks on Biblical Traditions and Archaeological Evidence Concerning Early Israel". Symbiosis, Symbolism, and the Power of the Past. Canaan, Ancient Israel, and Their Neighbors from the Late Bronze Age Through Roman Palestina. Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 85–98. ISBN 978-1-57506-081-1.
McDonald, Lee Martin (2021). "A Canonical History of the Old Testament Apocrypha". In Oegema, Gerbern S. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the Apocrypha. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-068964-3.
McLay, Tim (2003). The use of the Septuagint in New Testament research. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co. ISBN 978-0-8028-6091-0.
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Metzger, Bruce M. (1972). "Literary Forgeries and Canonical Pseudepigrapha". Journal of Biblical Literature. 91 (1): 3–24. doi:10.2307/3262916. JSTOR 3262916.
Metzger, David; Katz, Steven B. (2010). "The 'Place' of Rhetoric in Aggadic Midrash". College English. 72 (6). National Council of Teachers of English: 638–653. doi:10.58680/ce201011553. JSTOR 20749307.
Mittleman, Alan L. (2012). A Short History of Jewish Ethics: Conduct and Character in the Context of Covenant. Chichester, West Suffix: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-8942-2.
Mowry, Lucetta (1944). "The Early Circulation of Paul's Letters". Journal of Biblical Literature. 63 (2): 73–86. doi:10.2307/3262644. JSTOR 3262644.
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Newsom, Carol Ann (2004). The Self as Symbolic Space: Constructing Identity and Community at Qumran. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-13803-2.
Orsini, Pasquale; Clarysse, Willy (2012). "Early New Testament Manuscripts and Their Dates". Ephemerides Theologicae Lovanienses. 88 (4): 443–474. doi:10.2143/ETL.88.4.2957937.
Pace, Sharon (2016). "17 Deuterocanonical/Apocryphal books". In Chapman, Stephen B.; Sweeney, Marvin A. (eds.). The Cambridge Companion to the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88320-7.
Parker, David C. (2013). "The New Testament text and versions". In Paget, James Carleton; Schaper, Joachim (eds.). Volume 1: From the Beginnings to 600. The New Cambridge History of the Bible. Cambridge University Press. pp. 412–454. ISBN 978-0-521-85938-7. OCLC 774213683.
Phillips, Kim (2016). "The Masora Magna of two biblical fragments from the Cairo Genizah, and the unusual practice of the scribe behind the Leningrad Codex". The Tyndale Bulletin. 67 (2). doi:10.17863/CAM.11381. S2CID 165565008.
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Wright, Kevin J. (2008). The Christian travel planner. Thomas Nelson. ISBN 978-1-4016-0374-8. Archived from the original on 11 December 2020. Retrieved 11 February 2020.
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External links

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Check out different versions of the Christian Bible

[ndq-27] Jump up to: ^a ^b "[...] die griechische Bibelübersetzung, die einem innerjüdischen Bedürfnis entsprang [...] [von den] Rabbinen zuerst gerühmt (.) Später jedoch, als manche ungenaue Übertragung des hebräischen Textes in der Septuaginta und Übersetzungsfehler die Grundlage für hellenistische Irrlehren abgaben, lehte man die Septuaginta ab." Homolka, Jacob & Chorin 1999, pp. 43ff, Bd.3

[39] Although a paucity of extant source material makes it impossible to be certain that the earliest Samaritans also rejected the other books of the Tanakh, the 3rd-century church father Origen confirms that the Samaritans in his day "receive[d] the books of Moses alone." Schaff 1885, Chapter XLIX(Commentary on John 13:26)

[110] "Each king is judged either good or bad in black-and-white terms, according to whether or not he "did right" or "did evil" in the sight of the Lord. This evaluation is not reflective of the well-being of the nation, of the king's success or failure in war, or of the moral climate of the times, but rather the state of cultic worship during his reign. Those kings who shun idolatry and enact religious reforms are singled out for praise, and those who encourage pagan practices are denounced." Savran 1987, p. 146

[111] "The fight against Baal was initiated by the prophets" Kaufmann 1956a, p. 54

[112] "The immediate occasion of the rise of the new prophecy was the political and social ruin caused by the wars with Israel's northerly neighbour, Aram, which continued for more than a century. They raged intensely during the reign of Ahab, and did not end until the time of Jeroboam II (784–744). While the nation as a whole was impoverished, a few – apparently of the royal officialdom – grew wealthy as a result of the national calamity. Many of the people were compelled to sell their houses and lands, with the result that a sharp social cleavage arose: on the one hand a mass of propertyless indigents, on the other a small circle of the rich. A series of disasters struck the nation – drought, famine, plagues, death and captivity (Amos 4: 6–11), but the greatest disaster of all was the social disintegration due to the cleavage between the poor masses and the wealthy, dissolute upper class. The decay affected both Judah and Israel ... High minded men were appalled at this development. Was this the people whom YHWH had brought out of Egypt, to whom He had given the land and a law of justice and right? it seemed as if the land was about to be inherited by the rich, who would squander its substance in drunken revelry. it was this dissolution that brought the prophetic denunciations to white heat." Kaufmann 1956b, pp. 57–58

[113] "What manner of man is the prophet? A student of philosophy who runs from the discourses of the great metaphysicians to the orations of the prophets may feel as if he were going from the realm of the sublime to an area of trivialities. Instead of dealing with the timeless issues of being and becoming, of matter and form, of definitions and demonstrations, he is thrown into orations about widows and orphans, about the corruption of judges and affairs of the market place. Instead of showing us a way through the elegant mansions of the mind, the prophets take us to the slums. The world is a proud place, full of beauty, but the prophets are scandalized, and rave as if the whole world were a slum. They make much ado about paltry things, lavishing excessive language upon trifling subjects. What if somewhere in ancient Palestine poor people have not been treated properly by the rich? .... Indeed, the sorts of crimes and even the amount of delinquency that fill the prophets of Israel with dismay do not go beyond that which we regard as normal, as typical ingredients of social dynamics. To us a single act of injustice – cheating in business, exploitation of the poor – is slight; to the prophets, a disaster. To us an injustice is injurious to the welfare of the people; to the prophets it is a deathblow to existence; to us an episode; to them, a catastrophe, a threat to the world." Heschel 2001, pp. 3–4

[114] "Samuel is thus a work of national self-criticism. It recognizes that Israel would not have survived, either politically or culturally, without the steadying presence of a dynastic royal house. But it makes both that house and its subjects answerable to firm standards of prophetic justice – not those of cult prophets or professional ecstatics, but of morally upright prophetic leaders in the tradition of Moses, Joshua, Deborah, Gideon, and others ..." Rosenberg 1987, p. 141

[119] Originally, Ezra and Nehemiah were one book, which were divided in later traditions.

[130] According to the Jewish Encyclopedia: "The translation, which shows at times a peculiar ignorance of Hebrew usage, was evidently made from a codex which differed widely in places from the text crystallized by the Masorah."^[121]

[135] "Two things, however, rendered the Septuagint unwelcome in the long run to the Jews. Its divergence from the accepted text (afterward called the Masoretic) was too evident; and it therefore could not serve as a basis for theological discussion or for homiletic interpretation. This distrust was accentuated by the fact that it had been adopted as Sacred Scripture by the new faith [Christianity] [...] In course of time it came to be the canonical Greek Bible [...] It became part of the Bible of the Christian Church."^[121]

[136] Mishnah Sotah (7:2–4 and 8:1), among many others, discusses the sacredness of Hebrew, as opposed to Aramaic or Greek. This is comparable to the authority claimed for the original Arabic Koran according to Islamic teaching. As a result of this teaching, translations of the Torah into Koine Greek by early Jewish Rabbis have survived as rare fragments only.

[FUP1970-152] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c Even though they were not placed on the same level as the canonical books, still they were useful for instruction . ... These – and others that total fourteen or fifteen altogether – are the books known as the Apocrypha. Williams 1970, p. 141

[Ewert-153] "English Bibles were patterned after those of the Continental Reformers by having the Apocrypha set off from the rest of the OT. Coverdale (1535) called them "Apocrypha". All English Bibles prior to 1629 contained the Apocrypha. Matthew's Bible (1537), the Great Bible (1539), the Geneva Bible (1560), the Bishop's Bible (1568), and the King James Bible (1611) contained the Apocrypha. Soon after the publication of the KJV, however, the English Bibles began to drop the Apocrypha and eventually they disappeared entirely. The first English Bible to be printed in America (1782–83) lacked the Apocrypha. In 1826 the British and Foreign Bible Society decided to no longer print them. Today the trend is in the opposite direction, and English Bibles with the Apocrypha are becoming more popular again." Ewert 2010, p. 104

[Wells1911-154] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c "Fourteen books and parts of books are considered Apocryphal by Protestants. Three of these are recognized by Roman Catholics also as Apocryphal."Wells 1911, p. 41

[156] the Canon of Trent:
But if anyone receive not, as sacred and canonical, the said books entire with all their parts, as they have been used to be read in the Catholic Church, and as they are contained in the old Latin vulgate edition; and knowingly and deliberately contemn the traditions aforesaid; let him be anathema.
— Decretum de Canonicis Scripturis, Council of Trent, 8 April 1546

[162] "In all places where a reading from the deuterocanonical books (The Apocrypha) is listed, an alternate reading from the canonical Scriptures has also been provided."^[146]

[166] The canon of the original Old Greek LXX is disputed. This table reflects the canon of the Old Testament as used currently in Orthodoxy.

[167] Βασιλειῶν (Basileiōn) is the genitive plural of Βασιλεῖα (Basileia).

[168] That is, Things set aside from Ἔσδρας Αʹ.

[169] Also called Τωβείτ or Τωβίθ in some sources.

[171] Not in Orthodox Canon, but originally included in the Septuagint.^[150]

[172] Obdiou is genitive from "The vision of Obdias", which opens the book.

[173] Originally placed after 3 Maccabees and before Psalms, but placed in an appendix of the Orthodox Canon.

[176] "The New Testament was written in Koine Greek, the Greek of daily conversation. The fact that from the first all the New Testament writings were written in Greek is conclusively demonstrated by their citations from the Old Testament ..." Aland & Aland 1995, p. 52

[177] "How came the twenty-seven books of the New Testament to be gathered together and made authoritative Christian scripture? 1. All the New Testament books were originally written in Greek. On the face of it this may surprise us." Hunter 1972, p. 9

[178] "This is the language of the New Testament. By the time of Jesus the Romans had become the dominant military and political force, but the Greek language remained the 'common language' of the eastern Mediterranean and beyond, and Greek ..." Duff & Wenham 2005, p. xxv

[179] "By far the most predominant element in the language of the New Testament is the Greek of common speech which was disseminated in the East by the Macedonian conquest, in the form which it had gradually assumed under the wider development ..." Blass & Thackeray 2008, p. 2

[180] "In this short overview of the Greek language of the New Testament we will focus on those topics that are of greatest importance for the average reader, that is, those with important ..." Aune 2010, p. 61

[196] "The Peshitta Old Testament was translated directly from the original Hebrew text, and the Peshitta New Testament directly from the original Greek" Brock 1988, p. 13

[Bromiley1995-197] "Printed editions of the Peshitta frequently contain these books in order to fill the gaps. D. Harklean Version. The Harklean version is connected with the labours of Thomas of Harqel. When thousands were fleeing Khosrou's invading armies, ..." Bromiley 1995, p. 976

[201] The Council of Trent confirmed the identical list/canon of sacred scriptures already anciently approved by the Synod of Hippo (Synod of 393), Council of Carthage, 28 August 397, and Council of Florence, 4 February 1442;^[170] – Bull of Union with the Copts seventh paragraph down.

[WELS-283] "The United Methodists see Scripture as the primary source and criterion for Christian doctrine. They emphasize the importance of tradition, experience, and reason for Christian doctrine. Lutherans teach that the Bible is the sole source for Christian doctrine. The truths of Scripture do not need to be authenticated by tradition, human experience, or reason. Scripture is self authenticating and is true in and of itself."^[251]

[Humphrey2013-284] "historically Anglicans have adopted what could be called a prima Scriptura position." Humphrey 2013, p. 16

[286] "…they [from the Children of Israel] pervert words from their meanings, and have forgotten a part of what they were reminded …" Quran 5:18.^[252]

[303] That is, the first year of a full translation (irrespective of containing the Apocrypha) having been published.

[304] William Tyndale was stopped from translating all the books of the Old Testament due to his arrest in May 1535 and subsequent execution in October 1536.

[305] The first complete publication of William Tyndale's New Testament took place in 1526.

[306] The Douay–Rheims Bible was published in multiple volumes. The last volume of the Old Testament was published in 1610.

[1] "Definition of Bible | Dictionary.com". www.dictionary.com. Archived from the original on 15 October 2006.

[FOOTNOTEBandstra20097Gravett_et_al.2008xv-2] Bandstra 2009, pp. 7; Gravett et al. 2008, p. xv.

[FOOTNOTEBeekes2009246–247-3] Beekes 2009, pp. 246–247.

[FOOTNOTEBrake2008[httpsarchiveorgdetailsvisualhistoryofe00brakpage29_29]-4] Brake 2008, p. 29.

[5] Hamilton, Mark. "From Hebrew Bible To Christian Bible | From Jesus To Christ – The First Christians | Frontline | PBS". www.pbs.org. Archived from the original on 14 June 2018.

[FOOTNOTEBruce1988214-6] Bruce 1988, p. 214.

[7] Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. "A Greek-English Lexicon, βιβλίον". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Archived from the original on 18 November 2019.

[8] "The Catholic Encyclopedia". Newadvent.org. 1907. Archived from the original on 13 June 2010. Retrieved 23 April 2010.

[9] Carr, David M. The formation of the Hebrew Bible: A new reconstruction. Oxford University Press, 2011. p. 5

[FOOTNOTESwenson202112Rogerson200521Riches2000ch._2-10] Swenson 2021, p. 12; Rogerson 2005, p. 21; Riches 2000, ch. 2.

[FOOTNOTERiches20009-11] Riches 2000, p. 9.

[FOOTNOTELim20177,_47-12] Lim 2017, pp. 7, 47.

[FOOTNOTEHendelJoosten2018ix,_98–99,_101,_104,_106-13] Hendel & Joosten 2018, pp. ix, 98–99, 101, 104, 106.

[FOOTNOTELim201738,_47Ulrich2013103–104VanderKamFlint2013ch._5Brown2010ch._3(A)HarrisPlatzner200822-14] Lim 2017, pp. 38, 47; Ulrich 2013, pp. 103–104; VanderKam & Flint 2013, ch. 5; Brown 2010, ch. 3(A); Harris & Platzner 2008, p. 22.

[FOOTNOTEWegner200659-15] Wegner 2006, p. 59.

[FOOTNOTEWegner200660-16] Wegner 2006, p. 60.

[FOOTNOTEWegner200661-17] Wegner 2006, p. 61.

[FOOTNOTEVanderKamFlint201388–90-18] VanderKam & Flint 2013, pp. 88–90.

[FOOTNOTEWegner200662–63-19] Wegner 2006, pp. 62–63.

[FOOTNOTEWegner200664–65-20] Wegner 2006, pp. 64–65.

[FOOTNOTEHayes20129-21] Hayes 2012, p. 9.

[FOOTNOTEHayes20129–10-22] Hayes 2012, pp. 9–10.

[FOOTNOTELim201740-23] Lim 2017, p. 40.

[24] The Old Testament in Greek Archived 20 May 2023 at the Wayback Machine – Greek manuscripts. British Library. Retrieved 20 May 2023.

[FOOTNOTESegal2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidowd9zig7i1oCpgPA363_363]-25] Jump up to: ^a ^b Segal 2010, p. 363.

[FOOTNOTEDorivalHarlMunnich1988111-26] Dorival, Harl & Munnich 1988, p. 111.

[FOOTNOTELavidas202130-28] Lavidas 2021, p. 30.

[FOOTNOTELim201745–46,_58Hayes2012ch._1Brown2010Intro.Carr2010250Bandstra20098,_480Gravett_et_al.200847HarrisPlatzner200827Riches2000ch._3-29] Lim 2017, pp. 45–46, 58; Hayes 2012, ch. 1; Brown 2010, Intro.; Carr 2010, p. 250; Bandstra 2009, pp. 8, 480; Gravett et al. 2008, p. 47; Harris & Platzner 2008, p. 27; Riches 2000, ch. 3.

[Dines_2004-30] Jump up to: ^a ^b Dines, Jennifer (2004). The Septuagint. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-567-60152-0.

[FOOTNOTEHauserWatsonKaufman200330–31-31] Jump up to: ^a ^b Hauser, Watson & Kaufman 2003, pp. 30–31.

[FOOTNOTEWegner1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkkVFOTsBOAECq22Masoretesinherited22pgPA172_172]-32] Wegner 1999, p. 172.

[FOOTNOTESwenson2021[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5xQOEAAAQBAJpgPA29_29]-33] Swenson 2021, p. 29.

[FOOTNOTEPhillips2016288–291-34] Phillips 2016, pp. 288–291.

[FOOTNOTELavidas202175-35] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Lavidas 2021, p. 75.

[FOOTNOTEVanderKamFlint201387-36] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d VanderKam & Flint 2013, p. 87.

[FOOTNOTELim201746–49Ulrich201395–104VanderKamFlint2013ch._5Carr20108Bandstra2009482Gravett_et_al.200847–49HarrisPlatzner200823–28-37] Lim 2017, pp. 46–49; Ulrich 2013, pp. 95–104; VanderKam & Flint 2013, ch. 5; Carr 2010, p. 8; Bandstra 2009, p. 482; Gravett et al. 2008, pp. 47–49; Harris & Platzner 2008, pp. 23–28.

[FOOTNOTEVanderKamFlint2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidSBMXnB4CRpUCpgPA91_91]-38] VanderKam & Flint 2013, p. 91.

[FOOTNOTEGaster1908[httpsbooksgooglecombooksideUCRAfZvwRgCpgPA166_166]-40] Gaster 1908, p. 166.

[FOOTNOTEHauserWatsonKaufman200331–32-41] Hauser, Watson & Kaufman 2003, pp. 31–32.

[FOOTNOTEOrsiniClarysse2012470-42] Orsini & Clarysse 2012, p. 470.

[FOOTNOTELim201745–46Brown2010Intro._and_ch._1Carr201017Bandstra20097,_484Riches2000chs._2_and_3-43] Lim 2017, pp. 45–46; Brown 2010, Intro. and ch. 1; Carr 2010, p. 17; Bandstra 2009, pp. 7, 484; Riches 2000, chs. 2 and 3.

[FOOTNOTEGurry2016117-44] Gurry 2016, p. 117.

[FOOTNOTERezetkoYoung2014164-45] Rezetko & Young 2014, p. 164.

[FOOTNOTEWegner2006300-46] Wegner 2006, p. 300.

[FOOTNOTEWallace200988-47] Wallace 2009, p. 88.

[FOOTNOTEWegner200640–41,_300–301-48] Wegner 2006, pp. 40–41, 300–301.

[FOOTNOTEMowry194476,_84,_85-49] Mowry 1944, pp. 76, 84, 85.

[FOOTNOTEMowry194485-50] Mowry 1944, p. 85.

[FOOTNOTEBrown1997436-51] Brown 1997, p. 436.

[FOOTNOTELavidas202129-52] Jump up to: ^a ^b Lavidas 2021, p. 29.

[53] Ehrman, Bart D. Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why (New York: HarperCollins, 2005) p. 72.

[FOOTNOTEParker2013412–420,_430–432Brown2010ch._3(A)-54] Parker 2013, pp. 412–420, 430–432; Brown 2010, ch. 3(A).

[FOOTNOTELim201740Hayes2012ch._1Brown2010Intro.Carr20103–5Bandstra20097–8,_480–481Gravett_et_al.2008xvHarrisPlatzner20083–4,_28,_371Riches2000ch._3-55] Jump up to: ^a ^b Lim 2017, p. 40; Hayes 2012, ch. 1; Brown 2010, Intro.; Carr 2010, pp. 3–5; Bandstra 2009, pp. 7–8, 480–481; Gravett et al. 2008, p. xv; Harris & Platzner 2008, pp. 3–4, 28, 371; Riches 2000, ch. 3.

[FOOTNOTELim201740,_46,_49,_58–59Hayes2012ch._1Brown2010Intro.Carr20103–5Bandstra20097–8,_480–481Gravett_et_al.2008xv,_49HarrisPlatzner20083–4,_28,_31–32,_371Riches2000ch._3-56] Jump up to: ^a ^b Lim 2017, pp. 40, 46, 49, 58–59; Hayes 2012, ch. 1; Brown 2010, Intro.; Carr 2010, pp. 3–5; Bandstra 2009, pp. 7–8, 480–481; Gravett et al. 2008, pp. xv, 49; Harris & Platzner 2008, pp. 3–4, 28, 31–32, 371; Riches 2000, ch. 3.

[FOOTNOTERiches20007–8-57] Riches 2000, pp. 7–8.

[FOOTNOTEBarton201915-58] Barton 2019, p. 15.

[FOOTNOTEWegner200641-59] Wegner 2006, p. 41.

[FOOTNOTEBlack199424-60] Black 1994, p. 24.

[FOOTNOTEWallace200998-61] Wallace 2009, p. 98.

[FOOTNOTETov200118-62] Tov 2001, p. 18.

[63] "The Damascus Keters". National Library of Israel. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 1 July 2020.

[FOOTNOTECarr20115–7-64] Carr 2011, pp. 5–7.

[FOOTNOTEBlack199460-65] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c Black 1994, p. 60.

[FOOTNOTECarr20115–7,_18,_24,_29,_42,_55,_61,_145,_167-66] Carr 2011, pp. 5–7, 18, 24, 29, 42, 55, 61, 145, 167.

[FOOTNOTERoyce2013461–464,_468,_470–473-67] Royce 2013, pp. 461–464, 468, 470–473.

[FOOTNOTEWegner200625-68] Wegner 2006, p. 25.

[Barbara_J._MacHaffie-69] MacHaffie, Barbara J. (1992). Her Story Women in Christian Tradition. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-1-4514-0402-9.

[FOOTNOTEHarper20131–14,_84–86,_88-70] Harper 2013, pp. 1–14, 84–86, 88.

[Chadwick-71] Henry Chadwick, The Early Church, ISBN 978-0-14-023199-1

[Wayne_Grudem-72] Grudem, Wayne (2018). Christian Ethics: An Introduction to Biblical Moral Reasoning. Crossway. ISBN 978-1-4335-4965-6.

[73] Praet, Danny (1992–1993). "Explaining the Christianization of the Roman Empire. Older theories and recent developments". Sacris Erudiri. Jaarboek voor Godsdienstgeschiedenis. A Journal on the Inheritance of Early and Medieval Christianity. 23: 5–119.

[Northcott96-74] Northcott, Michael S. (1996). Clark, Stephen R. L. (ed.). The Environment and Christian Ethics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-57631-4.

[Hargaden-75] Hargaden, Kevin (2018). Theological Ethics in a Neoliberal Age: Confronting the Christian Problem with Wealth. Wipf and Stock. ISBN 978-1-5326-5500-5.

[Kieran_Cronin-76] Cronin, Kieran (1992). Rights and Christian ethics. Cambridge University Press. p. 223. ISBN 978-0-521-41889-8.

[FOOTNOTEGericke2012207-77] Gericke 2012, p. 207.

[FOOTNOTEGericke2012210-78] Jump up to: ^a ^b Gericke 2012, p. 210.

[FOOTNOTEMittleman20121,_2-79] Mittleman 2012, pp. 1, 2.

[FOOTNOTEBarton20071–3-80] Barton 2007, pp. 1–3.

[FOOTNOTEBarton201914-81] Barton 2019, p. 14.

[FOOTNOTEBarton201940-82] Jump up to: ^a ^b Barton 2019, p. 40.

[FOOTNOTECarmySchatz200313–14-83] Carmy & Schatz 2003, pp. 13–14.

[FOOTNOTEGericke2012209-84] Gericke 2012, p. 209.

[FOOTNOTEFox200778-85] Fox 2007, p. 78.

[FOOTNOTEBarton20193-86] Jump up to: ^a ^b Barton 2019, p. 3.

[FOOTNOTEMittleman201217-87] Mittleman 2012, p. 17.

[FOOTNOTEBrunner2002494-88] Brunner 2002, p. 494.

[FOOTNOTEBeach198825–26-89] Beach 1988, pp. 25–26.

[FOOTNOTEBarton200348–50-90] Barton 2003, pp. 48–50.

[FOOTNOTEWalzer2012200-91] Walzer 2012, p. 200.

[FOOTNOTESouryal2015xx-92] Souryal 2015, p. xx.

[FOOTNOTECarmySchatz200313,_14-93] Carmy & Schatz 2003, pp. 13, 14.

[94] Tov, Professor Emmanuel. "The Bible and the Masoretic Text". The Torah.com. Archived from the original on 25 May 2022. Retrieved 3 July 2022.

[FOOTNOTEMetzger_&_Katz2010651,_footnote_1-95] Metzger & Katz 2010, p. 651, footnote 1.

[FOOTNOTEPace2016354-96] Pace 2016, p. 354.

[97] Ezra 4:8–6:18 and 7:12–26, Jeremiah 10:11, Daniel 2:4–7:28

[Driver-98] Driver, Godfrey. "Introduction to the Old Testament". www.bible-researcher.com. Archived from the original on 9 November 2009. Retrieved 30 November 2009.

[FOOTNOTEBarnstone2009[[iarchive:isbn_9780393064933/page/647|647]]-99] Barnstone 2009, p. 647.

[FOOTNOTERobinson200697-100] Robinson 2006, p. 97.

[FOOTNOTECrossLivingstone20051072-101] Cross & Livingstone 2005, p. 1072.

[FOOTNOTENahkola2007vii,_xvi,_197,_204,_216–217-102] Nahkola 2007, pp. vii, xvi, 197, 204, 216–217.

[FOOTNOTEBaden201213-103] Baden 2012, p. 13.

[FOOTNOTEGreifenhagen2003206-104] Greifenhagen 2003, p. 206.

[FOOTNOTEGreifenhagen2003206–207-105] Greifenhagen 2003, pp. 206–207.

[FOOTNOTENewsom200426-106] Newsom 2004, p. 26.

[FOOTNOTEGreifenhagen2003224_n._49-107] Greifenhagen 2003, p. 224 n. 49.

[FOOTNOTERossel2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidAzZlANCOIRgCpgPA355_355]-108] Rossel 2007, p. 355.

[109] 1 Kings.18:24; 1 Kings.18:37–39

[FOOTNOTEHenshaw196320-115] Henshaw 1963, p. 20.

[FOOTNOTEKraus199333-116] Kraus 1993, p. 33.

[FOOTNOTEKraus199312-117] Kraus 1993, p. 12.

[FOOTNOTECoogan20095-118] Jump up to: ^a ^b Coogan 2009, p. 5.

[FOOTNOTEYoung201323-120] Young 2013, p. 23.

[FOOTNOTEYoung201324-121] Young 2013, p. 24.

[FOOTNOTERodkinson200853-122] Rodkinson 2008, p. 53.

[FOOTNOTEPhillips2016300–301-123] Phillips 2016, pp. 300–301.

[FOOTNOTEHenshaw196316–17-124] Henshaw 1963, pp. 16–17.

[FOOTNOTELightfoot2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid89oz-U-JJ0sCpgPA154_154–155]-125] Lightfoot 2003, pp. 154–155.

[FOOTNOTEHenshaw196317-126] Henshaw 1963, p. 17.

[FOOTNOTEFitzmeyer199241-127] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Fitzmeyer 1992, p. 41.

[FOOTNOTEMarcos200021-128] Jump up to: ^a ^b Marcos 2000, p. 21.

[JewishEncyclopedia.com-129] Jump up to: ^a ^b "Bible Translations – The Septuagint". JewishEncyclopedia.com. Archived from the original on 15 March 2012. Retrieved 10 February 2012.

[FOOTNOTEPace2016349–350-131] Pace 2016, pp. 349–350.

[FOOTNOTEBlocher200482-132] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c Blocher 2004, p. 82.

[FOOTNOTEBlocher200486-133] Blocher 2004, p. 86.

[FOOTNOTEGerber1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDygOmktEvFMCpgPA43_43–46]-134] Gerber 1994, pp. 43–46.

[137] "St. Jerome, Commentary on Daniel (1958) pp. 15–157". www.tertullian.org. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Retrieved 2 February 2022.

[138] Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)

[FOOTNOTEFitzmeyer199240-139] Fitzmeyer 1992, p. 40.

[FOOTNOTEFitzmeyer199214,_52-140] Fitzmeyer 1992, pp. 14, 52.

[FOOTNOTEMetzger19724-141] Jump up to: ^a ^b Metzger 1972, p. 4.

[FOOTNOTEHarris1985vii,_197–221,_223–243-142] Harris 1985, p. vii, 197–221, 223–243.

[FOOTNOTEStuckenbruck_&_Erho2011259,_267-143] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c Stuckenbruck & Erho 2011, pp. 259, 267.

[FOOTNOTEFahlbuschBromiley2004411-144] Fahlbusch & Bromiley 2004, p. 411.

[145] "The Book of Enoch and The Secrets of Enoch". reluctant-messenger.com. Archived from the original on 8 June 2014.

[FOOTNOTEStuckenbruck_&_Erho2011261-146] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c Stuckenbruck & Erho 2011, p. 261.

[FOOTNOTEJohnson2012374-147] Johnson 2012, p. 374.

[FOOTNOTEKelly2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidUivDgM0WywoCpgPA31_31–32]-148] Kelly 2000, pp. 31–32.

[FOOTNOTEWright20053-149] Wright 2005, p. 3.

[Wright-150] Jump up to: ^a ^b Wright 2005

[151] Catechism of the Catholic Church (2nd ed.). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2019. Paragraph 120.

[FOOTNOTEPace2016349-155] Pace 2016, p. 349.

[FOOTNOTEReinhartz202119-157] Jump up to: ^a ^b Reinhartz 2021, p. 19.

[FOOTNOTEPace2016350-158] Pace 2016, p. 350.

[FOOTNOTEReinhartz202120-159] Reinhartz 2021, p. 20.

[FOOTNOTEMcDonald202143-160] McDonald 2021, p. 43.

[161] "The Revised Common Lectionary" (PDF). Consultation on Common Texts. 1992. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 July 2015. Retrieved 19 August 2015.

[FOOTNOTECampbell2000336–337-163] Campbell 2000, pp. 336–337.

[164] "NETS: Electronic Edition". Ccat.sas.upenn.edu. 11 February 2011. Archived from the original on 29 July 2011. Retrieved 13 August 2012.

[FOOTNOTEMcLay20033–4-165] McLay 2003, pp. 3–4.

[170] "NETS: Electronic Edition". ccat.sas.upenn.edu. Archived from the original on 29 July 2011.

[Erbes-174] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c Erbes, Johann E. (1984). "The Aramaic New Testament: Estrangelo Script: Based on the Peshitta and Harklean Versions". digitalcommons.andrews.edu. American Christian Press. pp. 259–260. Archived from the original on 12 June 2022. Retrieved 10 April 2022.

[FOOTNOTEWallace199625–29-175] Wallace 1996, pp. 25–29.

[FOOTNOTEBarton19983,_4,_7-181] Barton 1998, pp. 3, 4, 7.

[FOOTNOTEBarton19982-182] Barton 1998, p. 2.

[FOOTNOTEBarton19983–8-183] Barton 1998, pp. 3–8.

[FOOTNOTEBarton19988–11-184] Barton 1998, pp. 8–11.

[FOOTNOTEBarton199811,_14–19-185] Barton 1998, pp. 11, 14–19.

[FOOTNOTEBarton19989–11,_17–18-186] Barton 1998, pp. 9–11, 17–18.

[FOOTNOTEBarton19983-187] Barton 1998, p. 3.

[FOOTNOTEBarton19989–11-188] Barton 1998, pp. 9–11.

[FOOTNOTEKelly2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidUivDgM0WywoCpgPA4_4]-189] Kelly 2000, p. 4.

[FOOTNOTEBarton19987-190] Barton 1998, p. 7.

[FOOTNOTEBarton199814-191] Barton 1998, p. 14.

[FOOTNOTEPorter2011198-192] Porter 2011, p. 198.

[FOOTNOTEBarton199815-193] Barton 1998, p. 15.

[FOOTNOTEMears2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidm2Lz7iwklhACpgPA439_438–439]-194] Mears 2007, pp. 438–439.

[FOOTNOTEFlinn2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidgxEONS0FFlsCpgPA103_103]-195] Flinn 2007, p. 103.

[FOOTNOTERüger1989302-198] Rüger 1989, p. 302.

[199] "Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent". www.bible-researcher.com. Archived from the original on 5 August 2011.

[200] "Council of Basel 1431–45 A.D. Council Fathers". Papal Encyclicals. 14 December 1431. Archived from the original on 24 April 2013.

[Ethiopian-202] Jump up to: ^a ^b "The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church". Ethiopianorthodox.org. Archived from the original on 5 November 2010. Retrieved 19 November 2010.

[203] Van Liere, Frans (2014). An Introduction to the Medieval Bible. Cambridge University Press. pp. 68–69. ISBN 9780521865784.

[Ehrman2003-204] Jump up to: ^a ^b Ehrman, Bart D. (2003). Lost Christianities: Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew. Oxford University Press. pp. 230–231. ISBN 9780199756681. Archived from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved 20 May 2023.

[205] "The Canonization of Scripture | Coptic Orthodox Diocese of Los Angeles". Archived from the original on 5 June 2023. Retrieved 2 April 2022.

[206] [1] Archived 27 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine Manuscripts and the Text of the New Testament: An Introduction for English Readers by Keith Elliott, Ian Moir – Continuum International Publishing Group, 2000, p. 9

[FOOTNOTELim201747Ulrich2013103–104VanderKamFlint2013ch._5Brown2010ch._3(A)HarrisPlatzner200822-207] Lim 2017, p. 47; Ulrich 2013, pp. 103–104; VanderKam & Flint 2013, ch. 5; Brown 2010, ch. 3(A); Harris & Platzner 2008, p. 22.

[FOOTNOTESoulenSoulen2001204-208] Soulen & Soulen 2001, p. 204.

[FOOTNOTERiches2000ch._1-209] Riches 2000, ch. 1.

[WSJ-210] Ryken, Leland. "How We Got the Best-Selling Book of All Time". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 8 May 2020. Retrieved 9 December 2015.

[211] Burnside, Jonathan (2011). God, Justice, and Society: Aspects of Law and Legality in the Bible. Oxford University Press. p. XXVI. ISBN 978-0-19-975921-7.

[212] V. Reid, Patrick (1987). Readings in Western Religious Thought: The ancient world. Paulist Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-8091-2850-1.

[FOOTNOTERiches2000chs._1_and_4-213] Riches 2000, chs. 1 and 4.

[214] G. Koenig, Harold (2009). Religion and Spirituality in Psychiatry. Cambridge University Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-521-88952-0. The Bible is the most globally influential and widely read book ever written. ... it has been a major influence on the behavior, laws, customs, education, art, literature, and morality of Western civilization.

[Michael_J._Vlach-215] Vlach, Michael J. (2010). Has the Church Replaced Israel? A Theological Evaluation. B&H Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8054-4972-3.

[Robert_G._Clouse-216] Clouse, Robert G. (1986). War: Four Christian Views. Winona Lake, Indiana: BMH Books.

[A.G.Hunter-217] Hunter, A. G. (2003). Bekkencamp, Jonneke; Sherwood, Yvonne (eds.). Denominating Amalek: Racist stereotyping in the Bible and the Justification of Discrimination", in Sanctified aggression: legacies of biblical and post biblical vocabularies of violence. Continuum Internatio Publishing Group. pp. 92–108.

[218] Collins, John J. (2004). Does the Bible justify violence?. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-0-8006-3689-0.

[219] Glick, Leonard B., "Religion and Genocide", in The Widening circle of genocide, Alan L. Berger (Ed). Transaction Publishers, 1994, p. 46.

[220] Masalha, Nur, The Bible and Zionism: invented traditions, archaeology and post-colonialism in Palestine-Israel, Volume 1, Zed Books, 2007, pp. 273–276

[Frank_Robert_Chalk-221] Jump up to: ^a ^b Chalk, Frank Robert; Jonassohn, Kurt (1990). The History and Sociology of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. pp. 3, 23–27. ISBN 978-0-300-04445-4.

[Matthew_Lynch-222] Jump up to: ^a ^b Lynch, Matthew (2020). Portraying Violence in the Hebrew Bible: A Literary and Cultural Study. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-49435-9.

[223] Trible, Phyllis (1984). Texts of Terror: Literary-feminist Readings of Biblical Narratives. Fortress Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-1-4514-1618-3.

[FOOTNOTERiches2000134-224] Riches 2000, p. 134.

[225] Ellul, Jacques (2 June 2011). The Subversion of Christianity. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN 978-1-60608-974-3 – via Google Books.

[226] Ellul, Jacques, The Subversion of Christianity, Eerdman's Publishing Co., 1984, pp. 116, 123

[Scribner-227] Scribner, Robert W.; Grell, Ole Peter; Scribner, Bob, eds. (2002). Tolerance and Intolerance in the European Reformation. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-89412-8.

[228] Powery, Emerson B. "The Bible and Social Reform: Musings of a Biblical Scholar." The Bible in the American Experience 2 (2020): 255.

[229] Unterman, Jeremiah. Justice for All: How the Jewish Bible Revolutionized Ethics. U of Nebraska Press, 2017. pp. 23–25

[Christopher_Marshall-230] Marshall, Christopher (1999). ""A Little lower than the Angels" Human rights in the biblical tradition". In Atkin, Bill; Evans, Katrine (eds.). Human Rights and the Common Good: Christian Perspectives. Wellington, New Zealand: Victoria University Press. ISBN 978-0-86473-362-7.

[Levent_Gönenç-231] Gönenç, Levent (2002). Prospects for Constitutionalism in Post-Communist Countries. The Netherlands: Kluwer Law International. p. 218. ISBN 978-90-411-1836-3.

[David_Kim-232] Kim, David; Kaul, Susanne, eds. (2015). Imagining Human Rights. Berlin: de Gruyter. pp. 13–17. ISBN 978-3-11-037619-7.

[233] Lockton, Harwood A. "When Doing Good is Not Good Enough: Justice and Advocacy." (2014). p. 130

[Bullough-234] Jump up to: ^a ^b Bullough, Vern L., and Bonnie Bullough. The care of the sick: The emergence of modern nursing. Routledge, 2021. p. 28

[FOOTNOTECrislip20053-235] Crislip 2005, p. 3.

[FOOTNOTECrislip200568–69,_99-236] Crislip 2005, pp. 68–69, 99.

[Charles_Schmidt-237] Schmidt, Charles (1889). "Chapter Five: The Poor and Unfortunate". The Social Results of Early Christianity. London: William Isbister Ltd. pp. 245–256. ISBN 978-0-7905-3105-2.

[Establishments-238] Models for Christian Higher Education: Strategies for Survival and Success in the Twenty-First Century. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. 1997. p. 290. ISBN 978-0-8028-4121-6. Retrieved 18 October 2007. Wesleyan institutions, whether hospitals, orphanages, soup kitchens, or schools, historically were begun with the spirit to serve all people and to transform society.

[Teasdale2014-239] Teasdale, Mark R. (2014). Methodist Evangelism, American Salvation: The Home Missions of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 1860–1920. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 203. ISBN 978-1-62032-916-0. The new view of evangelism called for the denomination to undertake two new forms of activities: humanitarian aid and social witness. Humanitarian aid went beyond the individual help that many home missionaries were already providing to people within their care. It involved creating new structures that would augment the political, economic, and social systems so that those systems might be more humane. It included the establishment of Methodist hospitals in all the major cities in the United States. These hospitals were required to provide the best treatment possible free of charge to all who needed it, and were often staffed by deaconesses who trained as nurses. Homes for the aged and orphanages were also part of this work.

[auto-240] Geoffrey Blainey; A Short History of Christianity; Penguin Viking; 2011

[FOOTNOTESannehMcClymond2016279-241] Jump up to: ^a ^b Sanneh & McClymond 2016, p. 279.

[FOOTNOTEHarper201314–18-242] Harper 2013, pp. 14–18.

[Rebecca_Langlands-243] Langlands, Rebecca (2006). Sexual Morality in Ancient Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85943-1.

[244] Harper, Kyle (2013). From Shame to Sin: The Christian Transformation of Sexual Morality in Late Antiquity. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-07277-0.

[Wilken_2003_291-245] Wilken, Robert L. (2003). The Spirit of Early Christian Thought. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 291. ISBN 978-0-300-10598-8.

[246] Ross, James F., "Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae (c. 1273), Christian Wisdom Explained Philosophically", in The Classics of Western Philosophy: A Reader's Guide, (eds.) Jorge J. E. Gracia, Gregory M. Reichberg, Bernard N. Schumacher (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2003), p. 165. [2]

[247] Boffetti, Jason (November 2001). "Tolkien's Catholic Imagination". Crisis Magazine. Morley Publishing Group. Archived from the original on 21 August 2006.

[248] Voss, Paul J. (July 2002). "Assurances of faith: How Catholic Was Shakespeare? How Catholic Are His Plays?". Crisis Magazine. Morley Publishing Group. Archived from the original on 22 February 2011. Retrieved 19 May 2022.

[Mati_Meyer-249] Meyer, Mati. "Art: Representation of Biblical Women". Jewish Women's Archive. Archived from the original on 16 October 2020. Retrieved 19 May 2022.

[250] "Art: Representation of Biblical Women | Jewish Women's Archive". Archived from the original on 16 October 2020. Retrieved 19 May 2022.

[Diane_Apostolos-Cappadona-251] Apostolos-Cappadona, Diane (July 2016). "Women in Religious Art". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion. 1. Oxford Research Encyclopedias. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.208. ISBN 978-0-19-934037-8.

[Warsh-252] Warsh, Cheryl Krasnick (2006). Children's Health Issues in Historical Perspective. Veronica Strong-Boag. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. p. 315. ISBN 978-0-88920-912-1. ... From Fleming's perspective, the transition to Christianity required a good dose of personal and public hygiene ...

[253] E. Clark, Mary (2006). Contemporary Biology: Concepts and Implications. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-7216-2597-3.

[254] "A hose: the strange device next to every Finnish toilet". Big in Finland. Curiosities. 8 July 2014. Archived from the original on 10 May 2022. Retrieved 21 May 2022.

[FOOTNOTEBarton20193,_14-255] Barton 2019, pp. 3, 14.

[FOOTNOTESteinsaltz20093–4-256] Steinsaltz 2009, pp. 3–4.

[FOOTNOTESteinsaltz20094-257] Jump up to: ^a ^b Steinsaltz 2009, p. 4.

[FOOTNOTESteinsaltz20093-258] Steinsaltz 2009, p. 3.

[FOOTNOTEBarton201913-259] Barton 2019, p. 13.

[FOOTNOTEBarton20199-260] Barton 2019, p. 9.

[FOOTNOTEBarton2019542-261] Barton 2019, p. 542.

[FOOTNOTEBarton20192-262] Barton 2019, p. 2.

[FOOTNOTEGrudem202063-263] Grudem 2020, p. 63.

[FOOTNOTERice196968–88-264] Rice 1969, pp. 68–88.

[FOOTNOTEBartkowski1996259–272-265] Bartkowski 1996, pp. 259–272.

[266] Philo of Alexandria, De vita Moysis 3.23.

[Josephus-267] Josephus, Contra Apion 1.8.

[268] "Basis for belief of Inspiration Biblegateway". Biblegateway.com. Archived from the original on 13 January 2009. Retrieved 23 April 2010.

[FOOTNOTEGeisler198686-269] Geisler 1986, p. 86.

[FOOTNOTEZuck199168-270] Zuck 1991, p. 68.

[FOOTNOTEGeisler1980294-271] Geisler 1980, p. 294.

[272] International Council on Biblical Inerrancy (1978). "The Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy" (PDF). Dallas Theological Seminary Archives. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 April 2008.

[273] "Ruckman's belief in advanced revelations in the KJV". Archived from the original on 27 October 2013. Retrieved 27 February 2014.

[Gellar-274] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c Geller, Stephen (2014). Sacred Enigmas: Literary Religion in the Hebrew Bible (reprint ed.). Routledge. pp. abstract. ISBN 978-1-317-79901-6.

[Banbaji-275] Banbaji, Amir. "Conflicted Anagoge: The Renewal of Jewish Textuality in Haskalah Rhetoric." Jewish Social Studies 26.2 (2021): 126–169.

[FOOTNOTEBarton20194-276] Barton 2019, p. 4.

[Horsley,_Draper,_Foley_&_Kelber_2011-277] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d Horsley, Richard A.; Draper, Jonathan A.; Foley, John Miles; Kelber, Werner H., eds. (2011). Performing the Gospel: Orality, Memory, and Mark. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-1-4514-1166-9.

[278] Collins, John J. (2017). The Invention of Judaism: Torah and Jewish Identity from Deuteronomy to Paul (reprint ed.). Univ of California Press. pp. 17–19. ISBN 978-0-520-29412-7.

[279] Carr, David M. (2005). Writing on the Tablet of the Heart: Origins of Scripture and Literature. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-534669-5.

[Smith_71-280] Smith, Wilfred Cantwell (1971). "The Study of Religion and the Study of the Bible". Journal of the American Academy of Religion. 39 (2). Oxford University Press: 131–140. doi:10.1093/jaarel/XXXIX.2.131. ISSN 0002-7189. JSTOR 1461797. Archived from the original on 30 June 2022. Retrieved 30 June 2022.

[281] Barrett, Matthew. God's Word Alone – The Authority of Scripture: What the Reformers Taught... and Why It Still Matters. Zondervan Academic, 2016.

[wels.net-282] Jump up to: ^a ^b "Methodist Beliefs: In what ways are Lutherans different from United Methodists?". Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. 2014. Archived from the original on 22 May 2014. Retrieved 22 May 2014.

[285] "Quran Explorer by Quran Archive: The Online Quran Project". quran-archive.org.

[FOOTNOTEPrice2009171-287] Price 2009, p. 171.

[FOOTNOTEGomes200942-288] Gomes 2009, p. 42.

[FOOTNOTEMarcos200018-289] Marcos 2000, p. 18.

[FOOTNOTEMarcos200019-290] Marcos 2000, p. 19.

[FOOTNOTEGoshen-Gottstein1979145-291] Jump up to: ^a ^b Goshen-Gottstein 1979, p. 145.

[FOOTNOTELavidas202163-292] Lavidas 2021, p. 63.

[FOOTNOTELavidas202176-293] Jump up to: ^a ^b Lavidas 2021, p. 76.

[FOOTNOTEKrauss2017105–106-294] Jump up to: ^a ^b Krauss 2017, pp. 105–106.

[FOOTNOTEKelly2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidUivDgM0WywoCpgPA55_55]-295] Kelly 2000, p. 55.

[296] "The Bible". www.thelatinlibrary.com. Archived from the original on 13 January 2016. Retrieved 13 January 2017.

[297] "Vulgate | Description, Definition, Bible, History, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Archived from the original on 13 March 2022. Retrieved 25 February 2022.

[FOOTNOTEMarcos2000322–323,_346–347-298] Marcos 2000, pp. 322–323, 346–347.

[FOOTNOTELavidas202130–31-299] Lavidas 2021, p. 30–31.

[FOOTNOTELavidas202141-300] Lavidas 2021, p. 41.

[FOOTNOTELavidas202141–42-301] Lavidas 2021, pp. 41–42.

[FOOTNOTELavidas202131-302] Lavidas 2021, p. 31.

[FOOTNOTESannehMcClymond2016265-307] Sanneh & McClymond 2016, p. 265.

[308] "2023 Global Scripture Access". Archived from the original on 13 October 2020. Retrieved 14 October 2020.

[FOOTNOTECaraherPettegrew201919-309] Caraher & Pettegrew 2019, p. 19.

[FOOTNOTECaraherPettegrew201911-310] Caraher & Pettegrew 2019, p. 11.

[FOOTNOTEMazar200385–87-311] Mazar 2003, pp. 85–87.

[FOOTNOTEGrabbe201736-312] Jump up to: ^a ^b Grabbe 2017, p. 36.

[FOOTNOTEDavies200027-313] Davies 2000, p. 27.

[FOOTNOTELeith20225-314] Leith 2022, p. 5.

[FOOTNOTELeith20224-315] Leith 2022, p. 4.

[FOOTNOTEHoffmeier199953-316] Hoffmeier 1999, p. 53.

[FOOTNOTEDever20038-317] Dever 2003, p. 8.

[FOOTNOTELeith20221-318] Leith 2022, p. 1.

[FOOTNOTELeith20226-319] Leith 2022, p. 6.

[FOOTNOTELeith20222-320] Leith 2022, p. 2.

[FOOTNOTELeith20222–3-321] Leith 2022, pp. 2–3.

[FOOTNOTEPhillips2006365-322] Phillips 2006, p. 365.

[FOOTNOTEPhillips2006366-323] Jump up to: ^a ^b Phillips 2006, p. 366.

[FOOTNOTEPhillips2006385-324] Phillips 2006, p. 385.

[325] "Expondo Os Erros Da Sociedade Bíblica Internacional". Baptistlink.com. 2000. Archived from the original on 29 October 2002. Retrieved 13 January 2012.

[FOOTNOTESoulenSoulen200122-326] Soulen & Soulen 2001, p. 22.

[FOOTNOTEFishbane1992129-327] Jump up to: ^a ^b Fishbane 1992, p. 129.

[FOOTNOTEFishbane1992121-328] Fishbane 1992, p. 121.

[FOOTNOTEHarrisville2014vii-329] Jump up to: ^a ^b Harrisville 2014, p. vii.

[FOOTNOTERogerson2000[httpsarchiveorgdetailsoxfordcompaniont00hastpage298_298]-330] Rogerson 2000, p. 298.

[331] Turner, Allan (31 August 2015). "Historic Bibles ?' even a naughty one ?' featured at Houston's Dunham Museum". Houston Chronicle. Archived from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved 10 February 2020.

[332] "About Us". www.museumofthebible.org. Museum of the Bible. Archived from the original on 25 November 2020. Retrieved 11 February 2020.

[333] "Museum of the Bible opens in Washington, D.C., with celebration amid cynicism". NBC News. Archived from the original on 21 November 2020. Retrieved 3 December 2017.

[334] "Questions swirl around Museum of the Bible before grand opening". NBC News. Archived from the original on 9 December 2020. Retrieved 11 February 2020.

[335] "St Arnaud gets its own holy grail". The Herald and Weekly Times. 21 April 2015. Archived from the original on 12 December 2020. Retrieved 11 February 2020.

[336] "Bible Museum Homepage | Features". www.thebiblemuseum.com.au. Archived from the original on 27 October 2020. Retrieved 11 February 2020.

[337] "Great Passion Play has some interesting new sights that don't cost anything to see". KSNF/KODE – FourStatesHomepage.com. 17 May 2019. Archived from the original on 18 August 2020. Retrieved 11 February 2020.

[FOOTNOTEWright2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidonBZhX0H9YkCqthegreatpassionplayarkansaseurekaspringspgPA327_327]-338] Wright 2008, p. 327.

[339] Jordan, Leah. "Shelby County awards $15,000 grant for Bible Museum in Collierville". WHBQ-TV. Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 11 February 2020.

[340] "About". Bible Museum On The Square. Archived from the original on 13 February 2020. Retrieved 11 February 2020.

[FOOTNOTEFonseca1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDGfg8QoWY_ECq22BibleMuseum22BiedenharnpgPA249_249]-341] Fonseca 1996, p. 249.

[FOOTNOTEDiringer2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBOjCAgAAQBAJpgPA208_208]-342] Diringer 2013, p. 208.

[FOOTNOTEDe_Hamel199245-343] De Hamel 1992, p. 45.

[FOOTNOTEDe_Hamel199257-344] De Hamel 1992, p. 57.

[FOOTNOTEDe_Hamel199265-345] De Hamel 1992, p. 65.

[FOOTNOTEDiringer2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidBOjCAgAAQBAJpgPA213_213]-346] Diringer 2013, p. 213.

[FOOTNOTEDe_Hamel199260-347] De Hamel 1992, p. 60.

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v t e The Bible
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v t e The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
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v t e Religious texts (List)
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